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{{Christianity|expanded=all}}
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'''Christianity'''<ref group="note">From [[Ancient Greek language|Ancient Greek]] Χριστός ''[[Christ (title)|Khristós]]'' ([[Latinization of Greek|Latinized]] as ''Christus''), translating [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] מָשִׁיחַ, ''[[Messiah|Māšîăḥ]]'', meaning "the [[Anointing|anointed]] one", with the [[Late Latin|Latin]] suffixes ''-ian'' and ''-itas''.</ref> is an [[Abrahamic religions|Abrahamic]] [[Monotheism|monotheistic]]<ref name="Monotheism" /> [[Major religious groups|religious group]]<ref name="PewDec2012" /> based on the [[Life of Jesus in the New Testament|life]] and [[Ministry of Jesus|teachings]] of [[Jesus]] of [[Nazareth]], also known by [[Christians]] as the [[Christ (title)|Christ]]. It is the [[Major religious groups#Largest religions|world's most populous religious group]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Study: Christian population shifts from Europe |author=Zoll, Rachel |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/feedarticle/10003271|newspaper=Associated Press |date=19 December 2011 |accessdate=25 February 2012}}</ref><ref name="PewDec2012">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/|title=The Global Religious Landscape|publisher=Pew Research Center|date=December 2012|accessdate=05 November 2018}}</ref> with over 2.4 billion followers,<ref name="World">33.39% of ~7.2 billion world population (under the section 'People') {{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html|title=World|website=The World Factbook|publisher=CIA}}</ref><ref name="gordonconwell.edu">{{cite web|url=http://www.gordonconwell.edu/resources/documents/1IBMR2015.pdf|title=Christianity 2015: Religious Diversity and Personal Contact|publisher=gordonconwell.edu|date= January 2015 |accessdate=29 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Global Christianity">{{cite web|author=ANALYSIS |url=http://www.pewforum.org/Christian/Global-Christianity-exec.aspx |title=Global Christianity |publisher=Pew Research Center |date=19 December 2011 |accessdate=17 August 2012}}</ref> or 33% of the global population,<ref group="note" name="name" /> comprising a [[Christendom|majority of the population]] in [[Christianity by country|about two-thirds of the countries]] in the world.<ref name="Global Christianity"/> Its believers affirm that Jesus is the [[Son of God (Christianity)|Son of God]], the [[Logos]], and the [[Salvation in Christianity|savior of humanity]], whose coming as the Messiah (Christ) was prophesied in the [[Old Testament]] of the [[Bible]], and chronicled in the [[New Testament]].<ref>{{cite book |title= Christianity: A Very Short Introduction|edition= |last= Woodhead|first= Linda |year= 2004|publisher= Oxford University Press |location= Oxford|isbn= |pages= n.p}}</ref> Christianity and [[Christian ethics|its ethics]] have played [[Role of Christianity in civilization|a prominent role]] in the shaping of [[Western civilization]].<ref>Religions in Global Society – Page 146, Peter Beyer – 2006</ref><ref name="Cambridge University Historical Series">Cambridge University Historical Series, ''An Essay on Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects'', p.40: Hebraism, like Hellenism, has been an all-important factor in the development of Western Civilization; Judaism, as the precursor of Christianity, has indirectly had had much to do with shaping the ideals and morality of western nations since the christian era.</ref><ref name="Caltron J.H Hayas">Caltron J.H Hayas, ''Christianity and Western Civilization'' (1953), Stanford University Press, p.2: "That certain distinctive features of our Western civilization — the civilization of western Europe and of America— have been shaped chiefly by Judaeo – Graeco – Christianity, Catholic and Protestant."</ref><ref name="Horst Hutter">Horst Hutter, University of New York, ''Shaping the Future: Nietzsche's New Regime of the Soul And Its Ascetic Practices'' (2004), p.111:three mighty founders of Western culture, namely Socrates, Jesus, and Plato.</ref><ref name="Fred Reinhard Dallmayr">Fred Reinhard Dallmayr, ''Dialogue Among Civilizations: Some Exemplary Voices'' (2004), p.22: Western civilization is also sometimes described as "Christian" or "Judaeo- Christian" civilization.</ref> Early statements of essential beliefs were the [[Apostles Creed]] and [[Nicene Creed]].
Christianity began as a [[Second Temple Judaism|Second Temple Judaic]] sect, in the 1st century, in the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] province of [[Judea (Roman province)|Judea]]. Jesus' [[apostles]] and their successors, the [[Apostolic fathers|Apostolic Fathers]], [[Early centers of Christianity|spread]] it across large parts of the [[Middle East]], [[Europe]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Transcaucasia]] and some other parts of [[Asia]], despite initial [[Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire|persecution]]. Emperor [[Constantine the Great]] converted to Christianity and decriminalized it in the [[Edict of Milan]] (313), later convening the [[First Council of Nicaea]] (325) where [[Early Christianity]] was consolidated into what would become the [[state religion of the Roman Empire]] (380).<ref>Religion in the Roman Empire, Wiley-Blackwell, by James B. Rives, page 196</ref><ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07218b.htm Catholic encyclopedia] New Advent</ref><ref>McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', pp. 301–03.</ref> The council formulated the [[Nicene Creed]] (325), and the [[Church fathers|Church Fathers]] supervised the [[Development of the Christian biblical canon|compilation]] of the [[Christian biblical canons|Christian Bible]] (5th century).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Herbermann|first1=Charles George|title=The Catholic Encyclopedia|date=1908|publisher=Robert Appleton Company,|location=New York|isbn=978-1174601828|pages=272, 273|url=https://books.google.com/?id=IEsfAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA272}}</ref> The period of the [[first seven ecumenical councils]] is sometimes referred to as the [[Great Church]], the united [[full communion|communion]] of the [[Catholic Church]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], and [[Oriental Orthodoxy]] before their [[schism]]s. Oriental Orthodoxy split after the [[Council of Chalcedon]] (451) over [[Chalcedonian Definition|differences in Christology]], while the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church separated in the [[East–West Schism]] (1054), especially over the [[Papal primacy|authority of the Pope]]. Similarly, [[Protestantism]] [[Anti-Catholicism|split]] in [[List of the largest Protestant denominations|numerous denominations]] from the Catholic Church in the [[Protestant Reformation]] (16th century), over [[Protestant theology|theological]] and [[Protestant ecclesiology|ecclesiological]] disputes.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q-vhwjamOioC&pg=PA23&dq=anagignoskomena#v=onepage&q=anagignoskomena&f=true |title=Orthodox and Wesleyan Scriptural understanding and practice | editor=S. T. Kimbrough|publisher=St Vladimir's Seminary Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-88141-301-4}}</ref>
Christianity was a leading influence on the development of [[Western civilisation]] in [[Europe]] during [[Late antiquity|Late Antiquity]] and the [[Middle Ages]]. Following the [[Age of Discovery]] (15th–17th century), Christianity was spread into [[the Americas]], [[Oceania]], [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] and the rest of the world via [[Christian mission|missionary work]] and [[History of colonialism|colonization]].<ref name="Spread">{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=g2AtOlJMPTUC&pg=PA52|title =Muslim-Christian Relations|publisher = [[Amsterdam University Press]]|quote=The enthusiasm for evangelization among the Christians was also accompanied by the awareness that the most immediate problem to solve was how to serve the huge number of new [[Conversion to Christianity|converts]]. Simatupang said, if the number of the Christians were double or triple, then the number of the ministers should also be doubled or tripled and the tole of the laity should be maximized and Christian service to society through schools, universities, hospitals and orphanages, should be increased. In addition, for him the Christian mission should be involved in the struggle for justice amid the process of modernization.|accessdate = 18 October 2007|isbn = 978-90-5356-938-2|year = 2006}}</ref><ref name="Charity">{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/?id=WmuV6g0yR3sC&pg=PA77|page=77|author=Fred Kammer|title =Doing Faith Justice|publisher = [[Paulist Press]]|quote=Theologians, bishops, and preachers urged the Christian community to be as compassionate as their God was, reiterating that creation was for all of humanity. They also accepted and developed the identification of Christ with the poor and the requisite Christian duty to the poor. Religious congregations and individual charismatic leaders promoted the development of a number of helping institutions-hospitals, hospices for pilgrims, orphanages, shelters for unwed mothers-that laid the foundation for the modern "large network of hospitals, orphanages and schools, to serve the poor and society at large."|accessdate = 18 October 2007|isbn = 978-0-8091-4227-9|date = 1 May 2004}}</ref><ref name="Service">{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=dz_EM2ofIb4C&pg=PA132|title =Christian Church Women: Shapers of a Movement|publisher = Chalice Press|quote=In the central provinces of India they established schools, orphanages, hospitals, and churches, and spread the gospel message in zenanas.|accessdate = 18 October 2007|isbn = 978-0-8272-0463-8|date = March 1994}}</ref>
Today, the [[List of Christian denominations by number of members|four largest branches of Christianity]] are the [[Catholic Church]] (1.3 billion), [[Protestantism]] (920 million), the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] (260 million)<ref name=BBC>{{cite news|last=Peter|first=Laurence|title=Orthodox Church split: Five reasons why it matters|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-45877584|publisher=[[BBC]]|date=October 17, 2018|accessdate=October 17, 2018}}</ref> and [[Oriental Orthodoxy]] (86 million), amid various efforts toward [[ecumenism]]. Their [[Christian theology|theology]] and [[Profession (religious)|professions]] of faith, in addition to the [[Bible]], generally hold in common that Jesus [[Passion of Jesus|suffered]], [[Crucifixion of Jesus|died]], was [[Burial of Jesus|buried]], [[Harrowing of Hell|descended into hell]] and [[Resurrection of Jesus|rose]] from the dead to grant [[Eternal life (Christianity)|eternal life]] to those who believe in him for the [[forgiveness#Christianity|forgiveness]] of their [[Christian views on sin|sin]]s. They further maintain that Jesus physically [[Ascension of Jesus|ascended]] into [[Heaven in Christianity|heaven]], where he reigns with [[God the Father]] in the unity of the [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]], and that he will [[Second Coming|return]] to [[Last Judgment|judge]] the living and the dead and grant eternal life to his followers. Christianity remains culturally diverse in its [[Western Christianity|Western]] and [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern]] branches, as well as in its doctrines concerning [[ecclesiology]] ([[church visible]]/[[church invisible]]), [[ordination]] ([[apostolic succession]], [[papal primacy]]), and [[Christology]] ([[Chalcedonianism]]/[[Non-Chalcedonianism]]).
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==Beliefs==
There are many important differences of interpretation and opinion of the [[Bible]] and [[sacred tradition]] on which Christianity is based.<ref name="Olsen">Olson, ''The Mosaic of Christian Belief''.</ref> Because of these irreconcilable differences in theology and a lack of consensus on the core tenets of Christianity, [[Catholic Church|Catholics]], [[Protestantism|Protestants]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] often deny that members of certain other branches are Christians.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ehrman|first1=Bart|title=Lost Christianities: the battles for scripture and the faiths we never knew|url=https://books.google.com/?id=URdACxKubDIC|year=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, New York|isbn=978-0-19-518249-1|page=1|chapter=Introduction: Recouping Our Losses|quote=Many of these Christian groups, of course, refuse to consider other such groups Christian.}}</ref>
===Creeds===
{{Main|Creed#Christian creeds|List of Christian creeds}}
{{Wikisource|Apostles' Creed}}
{{Wikisource|Nicene Creed}}
Concise doctrinal statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as creeds (from Latin ''credo'', meaning "I believe"). They began as baptismal formulae and were later expanded during the [[Christology|Christological]] controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith.
Many [[evangelical Protestants]] reject creeds as definitive statements of faith, even while agreeing with some or all of the substance of the creeds. [[Baptists|The Baptists]] have been non-creedal "in that they have not sought to establish binding authoritative confessions of faith on one another."<ref name=Avis>Avis, Paul (2002) ''The Christian Church: An Introduction to the Major Traditions'', SPCK, London, {{ISBN|0-281-05246-8}} paperback</ref>{{rp|p.111}} Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in the [[Restoration Movement]], such as the [[Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)]], the [[Evangelical Christian Church in Canada]] and the [[Churches of Christ]].<ref>White, Howard A. ''[http://www.appiusforum.net/restoration.html The History of the Church]''.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Cummins |first=Duane D. |title=A handbook for Today's Disciples in the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) |edition=Revised |publisher=Chalice Press |year=1991 |location=St Louis, MO |pages= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cNrs2YwoSrMC |isbn=978-0-8272-1425-5}}</ref>{{rp|14–15}}<ref name="Rhodes 2005">Ron Rhodes, ''The Complete Guide to Christian Denominations'', Harvest House Publishers, 2005, {{ISBN|0-7369-1289-4}}</ref>{{rp|123}}
[[File:Nicaea icon.jpg|thumb|An [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern Christian]] icon depicting [[Constantine I and Christianity|Emperor Constantine]] and the Fathers of the [[First Council of Nicaea]] (325) as holding the Niceno–Constantinopolitan Creed of 381]]
The [[Apostles' Creed]] is the most widely accepted statement of the articles of Christian faith. It is used by a number of [[List of Christian denominations|Christian denominations]] for both [[liturgy|liturgical]] and [[catechesis|catechetical]] purposes, most visibly by liturgical churches of [[Western Christian]] tradition, including the [[Latin Church]] of the [[Catholic Church]], [[Lutheranism]], [[Anglicanism]] and [[Western Rite Orthodoxy]]. It is also used by [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterians]], [[Methodism|Methodists]] and [[Congregational church|Congregationalists]]. This particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator. Each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the [[Apostolic Age|apostolic period]]. The creed was apparently used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome.<ref>Pelikan/Hotchkiss, ''Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition''.</ref>
Its main points include:
* Belief in [[God the Father]], [[Jesus Christ]] as the [[Son of God]], and the [[Holy Spirit (Christianity)|Holy Spirit]]
* The [[crucifixion of Jesus|death]], [[Harrowing of Hell|descent into hell]], [[resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]] and [[Ascension of Jesus|ascension]] of Christ
* The holiness of the [[Ecclesia (church)|Church]] and the [[communion of saints]]
* Christ's [[second coming]], the [[Last Judgment|Day of Judgement]] and [[Salvation in Christianity|salvation]] of the faithful.
The [[Nicene Creed]] was formulated, largely in response to [[Arianism]], at the Councils of [[First Council of Nicaea|Nicaea]] and [[First Council of Constantinople|Constantinople]] in 325 and 381 respectively <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cuf.org/2005/02/we-believe-in-one-god-the-nicene-creed-at-mass/ |title="We Believe in One God….": The Nicene Creed and Mass |date=February 2005 |website= |publisher=Catholics United for the Fath |registration=yes |accessdate=16 June 2014}}</ref><ref>''Encyclopedia of Religion'', "Arianism".</ref> and ratified as the universal creed of [[Christendom]] by the [[First Council of Ephesus]] in 431.<ref name="ephesus">''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05491a.htm "Council of Ephesus"].</ref>
The [[Chalcedonian Definition]], or Creed of Chalcedon, developed at the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in 451,<ref>Christian History Institute, [https://archive.is/20080106201425/http://chi.gospelcom.net/DAILYF/2003/10/daily-10-08-2003.shtml ''First Meeting of the Council of Chalcedon''].</ref> though rejected by the [[Oriental Orthodox]] churches,<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Oriental Orthodox Rejection of Chalcedon|url=http://www.britishorthodox.org/113e.php|journal=Glastonbury Review|author=Peter Theodore Farrington|date=February 2006|issue=113|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080619122112/http://www.britishorthodox.org/113e.php|archivedate=19 June 2008}}</ref> taught Christ "to be acknowledged in two natures, inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably": one divine and one human, and that both natures, while perfect in themselves, are nevertheless also [[Hypostatic union|perfectly united into one person]].<ref>Pope Leo I, [http://www.dailycatholic.org/history/4ecumen2.htm ''Letter to Flavian'']</ref>
The [[Athanasian Creed]], received in the Western Church as having the same status as the Nicene and Chalcedonian, says: "We worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; neither confounding the Persons nor dividing the [[Consubstantiality|Substance]]."<ref>''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', "[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02033b.htm Athanasian Creed]".</ref>
Most Christians ([[Catholic Church|Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodox]] and [[Protestant]] alike) accept the use of creeds, and subscribe to at least one of the creeds mentioned above.<ref name="UMC—Our Common Heritage as Christians">{{cite web|url=http://archives.umc.org/interior.asp?mid=1806 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060114032325/http://archives.umc.org/interior.asp?mid=1806 |dead-url=yes |archive-date=14 January 2006 |title=Our Common Heritage as Christians |publisher=The United Methodist Church |accessdate=31 December 2007 }}</ref>
===Jesus===
[[File:CompositeJesus.JPG|thumb|right|upright=0.9|Various [[Depiction of Jesus|depictions of Jesus]]]]
{{Main|Jesus|Jesus in Christianity|Christ (title)}}
{{See also|Incarnation (Christianity)}}
{{See also|Jesus in comparative mythology}}
The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in [[Jesus]] as the [[Son of God (Christianity)|Son of God]] and the [[Messiah]] (Christ). Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was [[anointing|anointed]] by God as savior of humanity and hold that Jesus' coming was the fulfillment of [[Messianic prophecies of Jesus|messianic prophecies]] of the [[Old Testament]]. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly from [[Jewish Messiah|the contemporary Jewish concept]]. The core Christian belief is that through belief in and acceptance of [[Death and Resurrection of Jesus|the death and resurrection of Jesus]], [[original sin|sinful]] humans can be reconciled to God and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of [[Immortality|eternal life]].<ref>Metzger/Coogan, ''Oxford Companion to the Bible'', pp. 513, 649.</ref>
While there have been many [[Christian theology|theological]] disputes over the [[Christology|nature of Jesus]] over the earliest centuries of Christian history, generally Christians believe that Jesus is [[Incarnation (Christianity)|God incarnate]] and "[[Hypostatic union|true God and true man]]" (or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus, having become [[Incarnation (Christianity)|fully human]], suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not [[Christian views on sin|sin]]. As fully God, he rose to life again. According to the [[New Testament]], he [[Resurrection of Jesus|rose]] from the dead,<ref>{{Bibleref2|Acts|2:24}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|2:31–32}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|3:15}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|3:26}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|4:10}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|5:30}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|10:40–41}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|13:30}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|13:34}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|13:37}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|17:30–31}}, {{Bibleref2|Romans|10:9}}, {{bibleref2|1Cor|15:15 || 1 Cor. 15:15}}, {{bibleref2-nb|1Cor|6:14}}, {{bibleref2|2Cor|4:14 || 2 Cor. 4:14}}, {{Bibleref2|Gal|1:1}}, {{Bibleref2|Eph|1:20}}, {{Bibleref2|Col|2:12}}, {{bibleref2|1Thess|1:10 || 1 Thess. 11:10}}, {{Bibleref2|Heb.|13:20}}, {{bibleref2|1Pet|1:3 || 1 Pet. 1:3}}, {{bibleref2-nb|1Pet|1:21}}</ref> [[Ascension of Jesus Christ|ascended]] to heaven, is seated at the right hand of the Father<ref>[[Wikisource:Nicene Creed]]</ref> and will ultimately [[Second Coming|return]]{{bibleref2c|Acts|1:9–11}} to fulfill the rest of [[Messianic prophecy]], including the [[resurrection of the dead]], the [[Last Judgment]] and final establishment of the [[Kingdom of God (Christianity)|Kingdom of God]].
According to the [[Biblical canon|canonical]] [[gospel]]s of [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]], Jesus was [[Incarnation (Christianity)|conceived]] by the [[Holy Spirit (Christianity)|Holy Spirit]] and [[Nativity of Jesus|born]] from [[Mary, mother of Jesus|the Virgin Mary]]. Little of Jesus' childhood is recorded in the canonical gospels, although [[New Testament apocrypha|infancy gospels]] were popular in antiquity. In comparison, his adulthood, especially the week before his death, is well documented in the gospels contained within the [[New Testament]], because that part of his life is believed to be most important. The biblical accounts of [[Ministry of Jesus|Jesus' ministry]] include: [[Baptism of Jesus|his baptism]], [[Miracles of Jesus|miracles]], preaching, teaching and deeds.
====Death and resurrection====
{{Main|Crucifixion of Jesus|Resurrection of Jesus}}
[[File:Cristo crucificado.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|''[[Christ Crucified (Velázquez)|Crucifixion]]'', representing the death of [[Jesus]] on the [[Christian Cross|Cross]], painting by [[Diego Velázquez]], 17th century]]
Christians consider the resurrection of Jesus to be the cornerstone of their faith (see [[1 Corinthians 15]]) and the most important event in history.<ref>Hanegraaff. ''Resurrection: The Capstone in the Arch of Christianity''.</ref> Among Christian beliefs, the death and resurrection of Jesus are two core events on which much of Christian doctrine and theology is based.<ref name="ACU-Death & Resurrection">{{cite web|url=http://dlibrary.acu.edu.au/research/theology/Walsh.htm |title=The Significance of the Death and Resurrection of Jesus for the Christian |publisher=Australian Catholic University National |accessdate=16 May 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070901153606/http://dlibrary.acu.edu.au/research/theology/Walsh.htm |archivedate=1 September 2007 |df=dmy }}</ref> According to the New Testament, Jesus was [[Crucifixion|crucified]], died a physical death, was buried within a tomb and rose from the dead three days later.{{bibleref2c|Jn.|19:30–31}} {{bibleref2c|Mk.|16:1}} {{bibleref2c-nb|Mark|16:6}}
The New Testament mentions several [[resurrection appearances of Jesus]] on different occasions to his [[twelve apostles]] and [[disciple (Christianity)|disciples]], including "more than five hundred brethren at once",{{bibleref2c|1Cor|15:6}} before Jesus' [[Ascension of Jesus Christ|Ascension]] to heaven. Jesus' death and resurrection are commemorated by Christians in all worship services, with special emphasis during [[Holy Week]] which includes [[Good Friday]] and [[Easter]] Sunday.
The death and resurrection of Jesus are usually considered the most important events in [[Christian theology]], partly because they demonstrate that Jesus has power over life and death and therefore has the authority and power to give people [[Eternal life (Christianity)|eternal life]].<ref>{{bibleref2 || John|3:16}}, {{bibleref2-nb|John|5:24}}, {{bibleref2-nb|John|6:39–40}}, {{bibleref2-nb|John|6:47}}, {{bibleref2-nb|John|10:10}}, {{bibleref2-nb|John|11:25–26}}, and {{bibleref2-nb|John|17:3}}</ref>
Christian churches accept and teach the [[New Testament]] account of the resurrection of Jesus with very few exceptions.<ref>This is drawn from a number of sources, especially the early Creeds, the ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', certain theological works, and various Confessions drafted during the Reformation including the ''Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England'', works contained in the ''Book of Concord''.</ref> Some modern scholars use the belief of Jesus' followers in the resurrection as a point of departure for establishing the continuity of the [[historical Jesus]] and the proclamation of the [[early church]].<ref>Fuller, ''The Foundations of New Testament Christology'', p. 11.</ref> Some [[Liberal Christianity|liberal Christians]] do not accept a literal bodily resurrection,<ref>A [[Jesus Seminar]] conclusion: "in the view of the Seminar, he did not rise bodily from the dead; the resurrection is based instead on [[vision hypothesis|visionary experiences]] of [[Saint Peter|Peter]], [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]], and [[Mary Magdalene|Mary]]."</ref><ref>Funk. ''The Acts of Jesus: What Did Jesus Really Do?''.</ref> seeing the story as richly symbolic and spiritually nourishing [[mythology|myth]]. Arguments over death and resurrection claims occur at many religious [[debate]]s and [[interfaith|interfaith dialogues]].<ref>Lorenzen. ''Resurrection, Discipleship, Justice: Affirming the Resurrection Jesus Christ Today'', p. 13.</ref> [[Paul the Apostle]], an early Christian convert and missionary, wrote, "If Christ was not raised, then all our preaching is useless, and your trust in God is useless."{{bibleref2c|1Cor|15:14}} <ref>Ball/Johnsson (ed.). ''The Essential Jesus''.</ref>
===Salvation===
{{Main|Salvation (Christianity)}}
[[Paul the Apostle]], like Jews and Roman [[pagan]]s of his time, believed that sacrifice can bring about new kinship ties, purity and eternal life.<ref name="remedy">{{cite journal |last=Eisenbaum |first=Pamela |date=Winter 2004 |title=A Remedy for Having Been Born of Woman: Jesus, Gentiles, and Genealogy in Romans |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=123 |issue=4 |pages=671–702 |url=http://www.sbl-site.org/assets/pdfs/JBL1234.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=3 April 2009 |doi=10.2307/3268465 |jstor=3268465 |subscription=yes}}</ref> For Paul, the necessary sacrifice was the death of Jesus: Gentiles who are "Christ's" are, like Israel, descendants of Abraham and "heirs according to the promise".{{bibleref2c|Gal.|3:29}} <ref>Wright, N.T. ''What Saint Paul Really Said: Was Paul of Tarsus the Real Founder of Christianity?'' (Oxford, 1997), p. 121.</ref> The God who raised Jesus from the dead would also give new life to the "mortal bodies" of Gentile Christians, who had become with Israel the "children of God" and were therefore no longer "in the flesh".{{bibleref2c|Rom.|8:9,11,16}} <ref name="remedy" />
Modern Christian churches tend to be much more concerned with how humanity can be [[eternal salvation|saved]] from a universal condition of sin and death than the question of how both Jews and Gentiles can be in God's family. According to both Catholic and Protestant doctrine, salvation comes by Jesus' [[substitutionary atonement|substitutionary death and resurrection]]. The Catholic Church teaches that salvation does not occur without faithfulness on the part of Christians; converts must live in accordance with principles of love and ordinarily must be baptized.<ref>CCC 846; Vatican II, Lumen Gentium 14</ref><ref>See quotations from Council of Trent on Justification at [http://www.justforcatholics.org/a14.htm Justforcatholics.org]</ref> [[Martin Luther]] taught that baptism was necessary for salvation, but modern Lutherans and other Protestants tend to teach that salvation is a gift that comes to an individual by [[Divine grace|God's grace]], sometimes defined as "unmerited favor", even apart from baptism.
Christians differ in their views on the extent to which individuals' salvation is pre-ordained by God. Reformed theology places distinctive emphasis on grace by teaching that individuals are [[total depravity|completely incapable of self-redemption]], but that [[irresistible grace|sanctifying grace is irresistible]].<ref>Westminster Confession, [http://www.spurgeon.org/~phil/creeds/wcf.htm#chap10 Chapter X] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140528062341/http://www.spurgeon.org/~phil/creeds/wcf.htm#chap10 |date=28 May 2014 }};<br />Spurgeon, ''[http://www.spurgeon.org/calvinis.htm A Defense of Calvinism] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080410133140/http://www.spurgeon.org/calvinis.htm |date=10 April 2008 }}''.</ref> In contrast Catholics, Orthodox Christians and [[Arminianism|Arminian]] Protestants believe that the exercise of [[free will]] is necessary to have faith in Jesus.<ref>{{cite web|website=[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]|title=Grace and Justification|url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p3s1c3a2.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100815001751/http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p3s1c3a2.htm|archivedate=15 August 2010}}</ref>
===Trinity===
{{Main|Trinity}}
[[File:Shield-Trinity-Scutum-Fidei-English.svg|thumb|upright=0.9|The [[Trinity]] is the belief that [[God in Christianity|God]] is one God in three persons: the [[God the Father|Father]], the [[God the Son|Son]] ([[Jesus]]), and the [[Holy Spirit (Christianity)|Holy Spirit]].<ref name="def-lateran">Definition of the [[Fourth Lateran Council]] quoted in ''[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]'' [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/_P17.HTM#1FT §253].</ref>]]
''Trinity'' refers to the teaching that the one God<ref name="Monotheism">Christianity's status as monotheistic is affirmed in, among other sources, the ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' (article "[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10499a.htm Monotheism]"); [[William F. Albright]], ''From the Stone Age to Christianity''; [[H. Richard Niebuhr]]; About.com, [http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/monotheisticreligions/ ''Monotheistic Religion resources'']; Kirsch, ''God Against the Gods''; Woodhead, ''An Introduction to Christianity''; [[Columbia Encyclopedia|The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia]] [http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/society/A0833762.html ''Monotheism'']; The New Dictionary of [[Cultural Literacy]], [https://web.archive.org/web/20071212011435/http://www.bartleby.com/59/5/monotheism.html ''monotheism'']; New Dictionary of Theology, [http://www.ntwrightpage.com/Wright_NDCT_Paul.htm ''Paul''], pp. 496–99; Meconi. "Pagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity". p. 111f.</ref> comprises three distinct, eternally co-existing persons; the ''[[God the Father|Father]]'', the ''Son'' (incarnate in Jesus Christ) and the ''[[Holy Spirit]]''. Together, these three persons are sometimes called the [[Godhead (Christianity)|Godhead]],<ref>Kelly. ''Early Christian Doctrines''. pp. 87–90.</ref><ref>Alexander. ''New Dictionary of Biblical Theology''. p. 514f.</ref><ref>McGrath. ''Historical Theology''. p. 61.</ref> although there is no single term in use in Scripture to denote the unified Godhead.<ref>Metzger/Coogan. ''Oxford Companion to the Bible''. p. 782.</ref> In the words of the [[Athanasian Creed]], an early statement of Christian belief, "the Father is God, the Son is God and the Holy Spirit is God, and yet there are not three Gods but one God".<ref>Kelly. ''The Athanasian Creed''.</ref> They are distinct from another: the Father has no source, the Son is begotten of the Father and the Spirit proceeds from the Father. Though distinct, the three persons cannot be divided from one another in being or in operation. While some Christians also believe that God appeared as the Father in the [[Old Testament]], it is agreed that he appeared as the Son in the [[New Testament]], and will still continue to manifest as the Holy Spirit in the present. But still, God still existed as three persons in each of these times.<ref>Oxford, "Encyclopedia Of Christianity, pg1207</ref> However, traditionally there is a belief that it was the Son who appeared in the Old Testament because, for example, when the [[Trinity#Art|Trinity is depicted in art]], the Son typically has the distinctive appearance, a [[cruciform halo]] identifying Christ, and in depictions of the [[Garden of Eden]] this looks forward to an Incarnation yet to occur. In some [[Early Christian art|Early Christian]] [[sarcophagi]] the Logos is distinguished with a beard, "which allows him to appear ancient, even preexistent."<ref>Heidi J. Hornik and Mikeal Carl Parsons, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BmWpMKaDBVUC&pg=PA34 Interpreting Christian Art: Reflections on Christian art]'', Mercer University Press, 2003, {{ISBN|0-86554-850-1}}, pp. 32–35.</ref>
The [[Trinity]] is an essential doctrine of mainstream Christianity. From earlier than the times of the [[Nicene Creed]], 325, Christianity advocated<ref>''Examples of ante-Nicene statements'':{{quote|Hence all the power of magic became dissolved; and every bond of wickedness was destroyed, men's ignorance was taken away, and the old kingdom abolished God Himself appearing in the form of a man, for the renewal of eternal life.|St. Ignatius of Antioch in ''Letter to the Ephesians'', ch.4, shorter version, Roberts-Donaldson translation}}{{quote|We have also as a Physician the Lord our God Jesus the Christ the only-begotten Son and Word, before time began, but who afterwards became also man, of Mary the virgin. For 'the Word was made flesh.' Being incorporeal, He was in the body; being impassible, He was in a passable body; being immortal, He was in a mortal body; being life, He became subject to corruption, that He might free our souls from death and corruption, and heal them, and might restore them to health, when they were diseased with ungodliness and wicked lusts|St. Ignatius of Antioch in ''Letter to the Ephesians'', ch.7, shorter version, Roberts-Donaldson translation}}
{{quote|The Church, though dispersed throughout the whole world, even to the ends of the earth, has received from the apostles and their disciples this faith: ...one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven, and earth, and the sea, and all things that are in them; and in one Christ Jesus, the Son of God, who became incarnate for our salvation; and in the Holy Spirit, who proclaimed through the prophets the dispensations of God, and the advents, and the birth from a virgin, and the passion, and the resurrection from the dead, and the ascension into heaven in the flesh of the beloved Christ Jesus, our Lord, and His manifestation from heaven in the glory of the Father 'to gather all things in one,' and to raise up anew all flesh of the whole human race, in order that to Christ Jesus, our Lord, and God, and Savior, and King, according to the will of the invisible Father, 'every knee should bow, of things in heaven, and things in earth, and things under the earth, and that every tongue should confess; to him, and that He should execute just judgment towards all...|St. Irenaeus in ''Against Heresies'', ch.X, v.I, {{Citation | last = Donaldson| first = Sir James|title = Ante Nicene Fathers, Volume 1: Apostolic Fathers, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus | publisher = [[William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.]] | year = 1950| isbn = 978-0802880871}}}}
{{quote|For, in the name of God, the Father and Lord of the universe, and of our Savior Jesus Christ, and of the Holy Spirit, they then receive the washing with water|Justin Martyr in ''First Apology'', ch. LXI, {{Citation | last = Donaldson| first = Sir James|title = Ante Nicene Fathers, Volume 1: Apostolic Fathers, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus | publisher = Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company| year = 1950| isbn = 978-0802880871}}}}
</ref> the triune [[Holy Mystery|mystery]]-nature of [[God in Christianity|God]] as a normative profession of faith. According to [[Roger E. Olson]] and Christopher Hall, through prayer, meditation, study and practice, the Christian community concluded "that God must exist as both a unity and trinity", codifying this in ecumenical council at the end of the 4th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Olson|first1=Roger E.|title=The Trinity|date=2002|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|page=15|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SUAidAp8AgEC|isbn=978-0-8028-4827-7}}</ref><ref>Fowler. ''World Religions: An Introduction for Students''. p. 58.</ref><!-- ref supports entire paragraph -->
According to this doctrine, God is not divided in the sense that each person has a third of the whole; rather, each person is considered to be fully God (see [[Perichoresis]]). The distinction lies in their relations, the Father being unbegotten; the Son being begotten of the Father; and the Holy Spirit proceeding from the Father and (in [[Western Christian]] theology) [[Filioque|from the Son]]. Regardless of this apparent difference, the three "persons" are each [[eternity|eternal]] and [[omnipotent]]. Other Christian religions including [[Unitarian Universalism]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], [[Mormonism]] and others do not share those views on the Trinity.
The Greek word ''trias''<ref>{{LSJ|tria/s1|τριάς|ref}}.</ref>{{refn|group=note|name=Trias-Trinitas|The Latin equivalent, from which English ''trinity'' is derived,<ref>{{OEtymD|trinity}}</ref> is ''trinitas''<ref name="Trinitas"/> though Latin also borrowed Greek ''trias'' verbatim.<ref>{{L&S|trias|ref}}</ref>}} is first seen in this sense in the works of [[Theophilus of Antioch]]; his text reads: "of the Trinity, of God, and of His Word, and of His Wisdom".<ref>{{cite book|series=[[Patrologiae Graecae|Patrologiae Graecae Cursus Completus]]|volume=6|author=Theophilus of Antioch|title=Apologia ad Autolycum|chapter=Book II.15|chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/PatrologiaGraeca/Patrologia%20Graeca%20Vol.%20006#page/n569|language=Greek, Latin|quote=Ὡσαύτως καὶ αἱ τρεῖς ἡμέραι τῶν φωστήρων γεγονυῖαι τύποι εἰσὶν τῆς Τριάδος, τοῦ Θεοῦ, καὶ τοῦ Λόγου αὐτοῦ, καὶ τῆς Σοφίας αὐτοῦ.}}</ref> The term may have been in use before this time; its Latin equivalent,{{refn|group=note|name=Trias-Trinitas}} ''trinitas'',<ref name="Trinitas">{{L&S|trinitas|ref}}</ref> appears afterwards with an explicit reference to the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, in [[Tertullian]].<ref>McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity''. p. 50.</ref><ref>{{citation|author=Tertullian|title=De Pudicitia|chapter=21|url=http://www.tertullian.org/latin/de_pudicitia.htm|language=Latin|quote=Nam et ipsa ecclesia proprie et principaliter ipse est spiritus, in quo est trinitas unius diuinitatis, Pater et Filius et Spiritus sanctus.}}.</ref> In the following century the word was in general use. It is found in many passages of [[Origen]].<ref>McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', p. 53.</ref>
====Trinitarians====
{{Main|Trinitarianism}}
''Trinitarianism'' denotes those Christians who believe in the concept of the [[Trinity]]. Almost all Christian denominations and churches hold Trinitarian beliefs. Although the words "Trinity" and "Triune" do not appear in the Bible, theologians beginning in the 3rd century developed the term and concept to facilitate comprehension of the New Testament teachings of God as being Father, Son and Holy Spirit. Since that time, Christian theologians have been careful to emphasize that Trinity does not imply that there are three gods (the antitrinitarian heresy of [[Tritheism]]), nor that each hypostasis of the Trinity is one-third of an infinite God (partialism), nor that the Son and the Holy Spirit are beings created by and subordinate to the Father ([[Arianism]]). Rather, the Trinity is defined as one God in three Persons.<ref>Moltman, Jurgen. ''The Trinity and the Kingdom: The Doctrine of God.'' Tr. from German. Fortress Press, 1993. {{ISBN|0-8006-2825-X}}</ref>
====Nontrinitarianism====
{{Main|Nontrinitarianism}}
''Nontrinitarianism'' (or ''antitrinitarianism'') refers to theology that rejects the doctrine of the Trinity. Various nontrinitarian views, such as [[adoptionism]] or [[modalism]], existed in early Christianity, leading to the disputes about [[Christology]].<ref>Harnack, ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/harnack/dogma1.ii.iii.iii.html History of Dogma]''.</ref> Nontrinitarianism later appeared again in the [[Gnosticism]] of the [[Cathars]] in the 11th through 13th centuries, among groups with [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]] theology in the [[Protestant Reformation]] of the 16th century,<ref>Pocket Dictionary of Church History Nathan P. Feldmeth p.135 "Unitarianism. Unitarians emerged from Protestant Christian beginnings in the sixteenth century with a central focus on the unity of God and subsequent denial of the doctrine of the Trinity"</ref> in the 18th-century [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] and in some groups arising during the [[Second Great Awakening]] of the 19th century.
===Scriptures===
{{Main|Bible|Biblical canon|Development of the Christian Biblical canon|Christian scripture}}
[[File:Gutenberg Bible, Lenox Copy, New York Public Library, 2009. Pic 01.jpg|upright=1.15|thumb|left|The [[Bible]] is the sacred book in Christianity.]]
Christianity, like other religions, has adherents whose beliefs and biblical interpretations vary. Christianity regards the [[biblical canon]], the [[Old Testament]] and the [[New Testament]], as the [[Biblical inspiration|inspired]] word of God. The traditional view of inspiration is that God worked through human authors so that what they produced was what God wished to communicate. The Greek word referring to inspiration in {{bibleref2|2Timothy|3:16||2 Timothy 3:16}} is ''theopneustos'', which literally means "God-breathed".<ref>{{cite book |title=Hermeneutics: Principles and Processes of Biblical Interpretation |edition=2nd |last=Virkler |first=Henry A. |editor-last=Ayayo |editor-first=Karelynne Gerber |year=2007 |publisher=Baker Academic |location=Grand Rapids, USA |isbn=978-0-8010-3138-0 |page=21 }}</ref>
Some believe that divine inspiration makes our present Bibles [[Biblical inerrancy|inerrant]]. Others claim inerrancy for the Bible in its original manuscripts, although none of those are extant. Still others maintain that only a particular translation is inerrant, such as the [[King James Version]].<ref>{{cite web|website=[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]|title=Inspiration and Truth of Sacred Scripture|url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100909213651/http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm|archivedate=9 September 2010}}(§105–108)</ref><ref>Second Helvetic Confession, [https://web.archive.org/web/20071203120450/http://www.creeds.net/reformed/helvetic/c01.htm ''Of the Holy Scripture Being the True Word of God'']</ref><ref>[[Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy]], [http://www.reformed.org/documents/icbi.html ''online text'']</ref> Another closely related view is [[Biblical infallibility]] or limited inerrancy, which affirms that the Bible is free of error as a guide to salvation, but may include errors on matters such as history, geography or science.
The [[books of the Bible]] accepted by the Orthodox, Catholic and Protestant churches vary somewhat, with Jews accepting only the Hebrew Bible as canonical; there is however substantial overlap. These variations are a reflection of the range of [[tradition]]s, and of the [[Ecumenical council|councils]] that have convened on the subject. Every version of the Old Testament always includes the books of the [[Tanakh]], the canon of the [[Hebrew Bible]]. The Catholic and Orthodox canons, in addition to the Tanakh, also include the [[Deuterocanonical Books]] as part of the Old Testament. These books appear in the [[Septuagint]], but are regarded by Protestants to be [[Biblical apocrypha|apocryphal]]. However, they are considered to be important historical documents which help to inform the understanding of words, grammar and syntax used in the historical period of their conception. Some versions of the Bible include a separate Apocrypha section between the Old Testament and the New Testament.<ref>Metzger/Coogan, ''Oxford Companion to the Bible''. p. 39.</ref> The New Testament, originally written in [[Koine Greek]], contains 27 books which are agreed upon by all churches.
Modern scholarship has raised many issues with the Bible. While the [[Authorized King James Version]] is held to by many because of its striking English prose, in fact it was translated from the Erasmus Greek Bible which in turn "was based on a single 12th Century manuscript that is one of the worst manuscripts we have available to us".<ref name="Ehrman209-183">Ehrman, Bart D. (2005). Misquoting Jesus: the story behind who changed the Bible and why. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco {{ISBN|978-0060738174}} pages 209, 183</ref> Much scholarship in the past several hundred years has gone into comparing different manuscripts in order to reconstruct the original text. Another issue is that several books are considered to be forgeries. The injunction that women "be silent and submissive" in 1 Timothy 2<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Timothy%202:11-12&version=NIV |title=1 Timothy 2:11–12 NIV – A woman should learn in quietness and |publisher=Bible Gateway |date= |accessdate=12 March 2013}}</ref> is thought by many to be a forgery by a follower of Paul, a similar phrase in 1 Corinthians 14,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20corinthians%2014:34-35&version=NIV |title=1 corinthians 14:34–35 NIV – Women should remain silent in the |publisher=Bible Gateway |date= |accessdate=12 March 2013}}</ref> which is thought to be by Paul, appears in different places in different manuscripts and is thought to originally be a margin note by a copyist.<ref name="Ehrman209-183" /> Other verses in 1 Corinthians, such as 1 Corinthians 11:2–16 where women are instructed to wear a covering over their hair "when they pray or prophesies",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20corinthians%2011:2-16&version=NIV |title=1 corinthians 11:2–16 NIV – On Covering the Head in Worship – I |publisher=Bible Gateway |date= |accessdate=12 March 2013}}</ref> contradict this verse.
A final issue with the Bible is the way in which books were selected for inclusion in the New Testament. [[Gnostic Gospels|Other Gospels]] have now been recovered, such as those found near [[Nag Hammadi]] in 1945, and while some of these texts are quite different from what Christians have been used to, it should be understood that some of this newly recovered Gospel material is quite possibly contemporaneous with, or even earlier than, the New Testament Gospels. The core of the [[Gospel of Thomas]], in particular, may date from as early as AD 50 (although some major scholars contest this early dating),<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wright|first1=N.T.|title=The New Testament and the People of God|date=1992|publisher=Fortress Press|location=Minneapolis|isbn=978-0-8006-2681-5|pages=435–443}}</ref> and if so would provide an insight into the earliest gospel texts that underlie the canonical Gospels, texts that are mentioned in Luke 1:1–2. The Gospel of Thomas contains much that is familiar from the canonical Gospels—verse 113, for example ("The Father's Kingdom is spread out upon the earth, but people do not see it"),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gnosis.org/naghamm/gosthom.html |title=The Gospel of Thomas Collection – Translations and Resources |publisher=Gnosis.org |date= |accessdate=12 March 2013}}</ref> is reminiscent of Luke 17:20–21<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke+17%3A20-21&version=NIV |title=Luke 17:20–21 NIV – The Coming of the Kingdom of God |publisher=Bible Gateway |date= |accessdate=12 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mmnet.com.au/australian_landscape_photos/writer/Reflections.html |title=Reflections on religions |publisher=Mmnet.com.au |date= |accessdate=12 March 2013}}</ref>—and the [[Gospel of John]], with a terminology and approach that is suggestive of what was later termed ''Gnosticism'', has recently been seen as a possible response to the Gospel of Thomas, a text that is commonly labelled ''proto-Gnostic''. Scholarship, then, is currently exploring the relationship in the [[Early Christianity|Early Church]] between mystical speculation and experience on the one hand and the search for church order on the other, by analyzing new-found texts, by subjecting canonical texts to further scrutiny, and by an examination of the passage of New Testament texts to canonical status.
====Catholic interpretation====
[[File:View of saint Peter basilica from a roof.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[St. Peter's Basilica]], [[Vatican City]], the largest church in the world and a symbol of the [[Catholic Church]]]]{{Main|Catholic theology of Scripture}}
In antiquity, two schools of exegesis developed in [[Alexandria]] and [[School of Antioch|Antioch]]. Alexandrine interpretation, exemplified by [[Origen]], tended to read Scripture [[allegory|allegorically]], while Antiochene interpretation adhered to the literal sense, holding that other meanings (called ''[[theoria]]'') could only be accepted if based on the literal meaning.<ref>Kelly. ''Early Christian Doctrines''. pp. 69–78.</ref>
[[Catholic Church|Catholic]] theology distinguishes two senses of scripture: the literal and the spiritual.<ref>Catechism of the Catholic Church, [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#III, ''The Holy Spirit, Interpreter of Scripture'' § 115–118]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325191945/http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#III |date=25 March 2015 }}</ref>
The ''literal'' sense of understanding scripture is the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture. The ''spiritual'' sense is further subdivided into:
* The ''allegorical'' sense, which includes [[Typology (theology)|typology]]. An example would be the [[Passage of the Red Sea|parting of the Red Sea]] being understood as a "type" (sign) of baptism.{{Bibleref2c|1Cor|10:2}}
* The ''[[moral]]'' sense, which understands the scripture to contain some ethical teaching.
* The ''[[anagoge|anagogical]]'' sense, which applies to [[eschatology]], eternity and the [[Apocalypse|consummation of the world]]
Regarding [[exegesis]], following the rules of sound interpretation, Catholic theology holds:
* The injunction that all other senses of sacred scripture are based on the ''literal''<ref>Thomas Aquinas, [http://www.newadvent.org/summa/100110.htm "Whether in Holy Scripture a word may have several senses"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060906114843/http://www.newadvent.org/summa/100110.htm |date=6 September 2006 }}</ref><ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#III §116] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325191945/http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#III |date=25 March 2015 }}</ref>
* That the historicity of the Gospels must be absolutely and constantly held<ref>[[Second Vatican Council]], [http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19651118_dei-verbum_en.html ''Dei Verbum'' (V.19)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531175312/http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19651118_dei-verbum_en.html |date=31 May 2014 }}.</ref>
* That scripture must be read within the "living Tradition of the whole Church"<ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#III "The Holy Spirit, Interpreter of Scripture" § 113]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325191945/http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#III |date=25 March 2015 }}</ref> and
* That "the task of interpretation has been entrusted to the bishops in communion with the successor of Peter, the [[Bishop]] of [[diocese of Rome|Rome]]".<ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a2.htm#III "The Interpretation of the Heritage of Faith" § 85]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403212113/http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a2.htm#III |date=3 April 2015 }}</ref>
====Protestant interpretation====
[[File:Lucas Cranach d.Ä. - Martin Luther, 1528 (Veste Coburg) (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.05|[[Protestants]] believe [[Martin Luther]]'s basic beliefs against the Catholic Church: [[Sola scriptura]] (by Scripture alone), [[Sola fide]] (by faith alone), [[Sola gratia]] (by grace alone), [[Solus Christus]] (through Christ alone) and [[Soli Deo gloria]] (glory to God alone).]]
=====Clarity of Scripture=====
Protestant Christians believe that the Bible is a self-sufficient revelation, the final authority on all Christian doctrine, and [[Revelation|revealed all truth]] necessary for salvation. This concept is known as ''[[sola scriptura]]''.<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w_PHAGr2TfgC&pg=PA15|title=The Shape of Sola Scriptura |author=[[Keith A. Mathison]] |publisher=[[Canon Press]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-885767-74-5|chapter=Introduction |page=15|title-link=The Shape of Sola Scriptura }}</ref> Protestants characteristically believe that ordinary believers may reach an adequate understanding of Scripture because Scripture itself is clear (or "perspicuous"), because of the help of the Holy Spirit, or both. Martin Luther believed that without God's help Scripture would be "enveloped in darkness".<ref name="Foutz" /> He advocated "one definite and simple understanding of Scripture".<ref name="Foutz">{{cite web |last=Foutz |first=Scott David |url=http://www.quodlibet.net/luther.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000414063800/http://www.quodlibet.net/luther.shtml |dead-url=yes |archive-date=14 April 2000 |title=Martin Luther and Scripture |publisher=Quodlibet Journal |accessdate=16 June 2014 }}</ref> [[John Calvin]] wrote, "all who refuse not to follow the Holy Spirit as their guide, find in the Scripture a clear light".<ref>John Calvin, [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/calcom45.vii.iv.iv.html '' Commentaries on the Catholic Epistles'' 2 Peter 3:14–18]</ref> The Second [[Helvetic Republic|Helvetic]] Confession, composed by the pastor of the Reformed church in Zürich (successor to Protestant reformer [[Zwingli]]) was adopted as a declaration of doctrine by most European Reformed churches.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.creeds.net/reformed/helvetic/c02.htm |title=The Second Helvetic Confession, Chapter 2 – Of Interpreting the Holy Scriptures; and of Fathers, Councils, and Traditions |date=11 December 2007 |publisher=Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071211005549/http://www.creeds.net/reformed/helvetic/c02.htm |archivedate=11 December 2007 |accessdate=1 January 2015 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
=====Original intended meaning of Scripture=====
Protestants stress the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture, the [[historical-grammatical method]].<ref>Sproul. ''Knowing Scripture'', pp. 45–61; Bahnsen, ''[http://www.cmfnow.com/articles/pt173.htm A Reformed Confession Regarding Hermeneutics'' (article 6)''].''</ref> The historical-grammatical method or grammatico-historical method is an effort in [[Biblical hermeneutics]] to find the intended original meaning in the text.<ref name="Elwell565">{{Cite book |publisher=Baker Book House |isbn=978-0-8010-3413-8 |last=Elwell |first=Walter A. |title=Evangelical Dictionary of Theology |location=Grand Rapids, Mich. |year=1984 |page=565|title-link=Evangelical Dictionary of Theology }}</ref> This original intended meaning of the text is drawn out through examination of the passage in light of the grammatical and syntactical aspects, the historical background, the literary genre as well as theological (canonical) considerations.<ref>{{Cite book |publisher=Academie Books |isbn=978-0-310-34160-4 |last=Johnson |first=Elliott |title=Expository hermeneutics : an introduction |location=Grand Rapids Mich. |year=1990}}</ref> The historical-grammatical method distinguishes between the one original meaning and the significance of the text. The significance of the text includes the ensuing use of the text or application. The original passage is seen as having only a single meaning or sense. As Milton S. Terry said: "A fundamental principle in grammatico-historical exposition is that the words and sentences can have but one significance in one and the same connection. The moment we neglect this principle we drift out upon a sea of uncertainty and conjecture."<ref>{{Cite book |publisher=Zondervan Pub. House |last=Terry |first=Milton |title=Biblical hermeneutics : a treatise on the interpretation of the Old and New Testaments |location=Grand Rapids Mich. |year=1974 |page=205}} (1890 edition page 103, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Fy9VAAAAMAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=%22fundamental+principle%22 view1], [https://books.google.com/books?id=Fy9VAAAAMAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=%22neglect+this+principle%22 view2])</ref> Technically speaking, the grammatical-historical method of interpretation is distinct from the determination of the passage's significance in light of that interpretation. Taken together, both define the term (Biblical) hermeneutics.<ref name="Elwell565" />
Some Protestant interpreters make use of typology.<ref>e.g., in his [http://biblehub.com/commentaries/mhcw/matthew/1.htm commentary on Matthew 1] (§III.1). [[Matthew Henry]] interprets the twin sons of Judah, Phares and Zara, as an allegory of the Gentile and [[Jewish Christians]]. For a contemporary treatment, see Glenny, ''[http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/article_typology_glenny.html Typology: A Summary Of The Present Evangelical Discussion]''.</ref>
===Ecclesiology===
{{Main|Ecclesiology}}
===Eschatology===
{{Main|Christian eschatology}}
[[File:Kohrvirab.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|The 7th-century [[Khor Virap]] monastery in the shadow of [[Mount Ararat]]. [[Armenia]] was the first state to adopt Christianity as the state religion, in AD 301.<ref name="Armenia"/>]]
The end of things, whether the end of an individual life, the end of the age, or the end of the world, broadly speaking is Christian eschatology; the study of the destiny of humans as it is revealed in the Bible. The major issues in Christian eschatology are the [[Great Tribulation|Tribulation]], death and the afterlife, the [[Rapture]], the [[Second Coming]] of Jesus, [[Resurrection of the Dead]], Heaven and Hell, [[Millennialism]], the [[Last Judgment]], the end of the world and the [[New Heavens and New Earth]].
Christians believe that the second coming of Christ will occur at the [[eschatology|end of time]] after a period of severe persecution (the Great Tribulation). All who have died will be [[Resurrection of the dead|resurrected bodily from the dead]] for the Last Judgment. Jesus will fully establish the [[Kingdom of God]] in fulfillment of [[Bible prophecy|scriptural prophecies]].<ref name="res">[[Thomas Aquinas]], [http://www.newadvent.org/summa/5.htm ''Summa Theologicum, Supplementum Tertiae Partis''] questions 69 through 99</ref><ref>{{cite web | last =Calvin | first =John | title =Institutes of the Christian Religion, Book Three, Ch. 25 | website = | publisher =www.reformed.org | date = | url =http://www.reformed.org/books/institutes/books/book3/bk3ch25.html | doi = | accessdate =1 January 2008 }}</ref>
====Death and afterlife====
Most Christians believe that human beings experience divine judgment and are rewarded either with eternal life or [[hell|eternal damnation]]. This includes the [[Last Judgment|general judgement]] at the [[resurrection of the dead]] as well as the belief (held by Catholics,<ref name="CEParticularJudgement">''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', "[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08550a.htm Particular Judgment]".</ref><ref name="Ott">Ott, ''Grundriß der Dogmatik'', p. 566.</ref> Orthodox<ref>David Moser, ''[http://www.orthodox.net/articles/about-prayer-for-the-dead.html What the Orthodox believe concerning prayer for the dead]''.</ref><ref>Ken Collins, ''[http://www.kencollins.com/question-45.htm What Happens to Me When I Die?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080928055816/http://www.kencollins.com/question-45.htm |date=28 September 2008 }}''.</ref> and most Protestants) in a [[particular judgment|judgment particular to the individual soul]] upon physical death.
In Catholicism, those who die in a state of grace, i.e., without any mortal sin separating them from God, but are still imperfectly purified from the effects of sin, undergo purification through the intermediate state of [[purgatory]] to achieve the holiness necessary for entrance into God's presence.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/1999/documents/hf_jp-ii_aud_04081999_en.html |title=Audience of 4 August 1999 |publisher=Vatican.va |date=4 August 1999 |accessdate=19 November 2010}}</ref> Those who have attained this goal are called ''saints'' (Latin ''sanctus'', "holy").<ref>''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', "[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04171a.htm The Communion of Saints]".</ref>
Some Christian groups, such as Seventh-day Adventists, hold to [[Christian mortalism|mortalism]], the belief that the human soul is not naturally immortal, and is unconscious during the intermediate state between bodily death and resurrection. These Christians also hold to [[Annihilationism]], the belief that subsequent to the final judgement, the wicked will cease to exist rather than suffer everlasting torment. Jehovah's Witnesses hold to a similar view.<ref>"The death that Adam brought into the world is spiritual as well as physical, and only those who gain entrance into the Kingdom of God will exist eternally. However, this division will not occur until Armageddon, when all people will be resurrected and given a chance to gain eternal life. In the meantime, "the dead are conscious of nothing." What is God's Purpose for the Earth?" Official Site of Jehovah's Witnesses. ''Watchtower'', 15 July 2002.</ref>
==Worship==
{{Main|Christian worship}}
{{See also|Mass (liturgy)|Reformed worship|Contemporary worship}}
[[File:Thebible33.jpg|upright=1.05|thumb|Samples of [[Catholic]] religious objects—the [[Bible]], a [[crucifix]] and a [[rosary]]]]
[[Justin Martyr]] described 2nd-century Christian [[liturgy]] in his ''[[First Apology]]'' (c. 150) to Emperor [[Antoninus Pius]], and his description remains relevant to the basic structure of Christian liturgical worship:
<blockquote>And on the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits; then, when the reader has ceased, the [[Presbyter|president]] verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. Then we all rise together and pray, and, as we before said, when our prayer is ended, bread and wine and water are brought, and the president in like manner offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability, and the people assent, saying [[Amen]]; and there is a distribution to each, and a participation of that over which thanks have been given, and to those who are absent a portion is sent by the deacons. And they who are well to do, and willing, give what each thinks fit; and what is collected is deposited with the president, who succours the orphans and widows and those who, through sickness or any other cause, are in want, and those who are in bonds and the strangers sojourning among us, and in a word takes care of all who are in need.<ref name="justin">Justin Martyr, [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/justinmartyr-firstapology.html ''First Apology''] §LXVII</ref></blockquote>
Thus, as Justin described, Christians assemble for communal worship on Sunday, the day of the resurrection, though other liturgical practices often occur outside this setting. Scripture readings are drawn from the Old and New Testaments, but especially the gospel accounts. Often these are arranged on an [[annual cycle]], using a book called a [[lectionary]]. Instruction is given based on these readings, called a [[sermon]], or homily. There are a variety of congregational [[prayer]]s, including thanksgiving, confession and intercession, which occur throughout the service and take a variety of forms including recited, responsive, silent, or sung. The [[Lord's Prayer]], or Our Father, is regularly prayed.
[[File:Worship-team.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|A modern Protestant worship band leading a contemporary worship session]]
Some groups depart from this traditional liturgical structure. A division is often made between "[[High church|High]]" [[church service]]s, characterized by greater solemnity and ritual, and "[[Low church|Low]]" services, but even within these two categories there is great diversity in forms of worship. [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]] meet on Saturday, while others do not meet on a weekly basis. [[Charismatic movement|Charismatic]] or [[Pentecostal]] congregations may spontaneously feel led by the Holy Spirit to action rather than follow a formal order of service, including spontaneous prayer. [[Society of Friends|Quakers]] sit quietly until moved by the Holy Spirit to speak.
Some [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]] services resemble concerts with [[Christian rock|rock and pop music]], dancing and use of multimedia. For groups which do not recognize a priesthood distinct from ordinary believers the services are generally led by a [[minister of religion|minister]], [[preacher]], or [[pastor]]. Still others may lack any formal leaders, either in principle or by local necessity. Some churches use only [[a cappella]] music, either on principle (for example, many [[Churches of Christ]] object to the use of instruments in worship) or by tradition (as in Orthodoxy).
Nearly all forms of [[churchmanship]] celebrate the [[Eucharist]] (Holy Communion), which consists of a consecrated meal. It is reenacted in accordance with Jesus' instruction at the Last Supper that his followers do in remembrance of him as when he gave his disciples [[Sacramental bread|bread]], saying, "This is my body", and gave them [[sacramental wine|wine]] saying, "This is my blood".<ref>Ignazio Silone, ''Bread and Wine'' (1937).</ref> Some [[Christian denominations]] practice [[closed communion]]. They offer communion to those who are already united in that denomination or sometimes individual church. Catholics restrict participation to their members who are not in a state of [[mortal sin]]. Most other churches practice [[open communion]] since they view communion as a means to unity, rather than an end, and invite all believing Christians to participate.
Worship can be varied for special events like [[baptism]]s or weddings in the service or significant [[Calendar of saints|feast days]]. In the [[Early Christianity|early church]], Christians and those yet to complete initiation would separate for the Eucharistic part of the worship. In many churches today, adults and children will separate for all or some of the service to receive age-appropriate teaching. Such children's worship is often called [[Sunday school]] or [[Sabbath school]] (Sunday schools are often held before rather than during services).
===Sacraments===
{{Main|Sacrament}}
{{See also|Sacraments of the Catholic Church|Anglican sacraments|Lutheran sacraments}}
{{quote box|title=2nd-century description of the [[Eucharist]]
|quote=And this food is called among us ''Eukharistia'' [the Eucharist], of which no one is allowed to partake but the man who believes that the things which we teach are true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins, and unto regeneration, and who is so living as Christ has enjoined. For not as common bread and common drink do we receive these; but in like manner as Jesus Christ our Savior, having been made flesh by the Word of God, had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so likewise have we been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of His word, and from which our blood and flesh by transmutation are nourished, is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh.
|source=[[Justin Martyr]]<ref name=justin />
|align=right
|width=30%
|bgcolor=#BCF5A9}}
In Christian belief and practice, a ''sacrament'' is a [[rite]], instituted by Christ, that confers [[divine grace|grace]], constituting a [[Sacred Mysteries|sacred mystery]]. The term is derived from the [[Latin]] word ''sacramentum'', which was used to translate the Greek word for ''mystery''. Views concerning both which rites are sacramental, and what it means for an act to be a sacrament, vary among Christian denominations and traditions.<ref name="ODCC1435">Cross/Livingstone. ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church''. p. 1435f.</ref>
The most conventional functional definition of a sacrament is that it is an outward sign, instituted by Christ, that conveys an inward, spiritual grace through Christ. The two most widely accepted sacraments are [[Baptism]] and the [[Eucharist]] (or Holy Communion), however, the majority of Christians also recognize five additional sacraments: [[Confirmation (Christian sacrament)|Confirmation]] ([[Chrismation]] in the Orthodox tradition), [[Holy orders]] ([[ordination]]), [[Penance]] (or [[Confession (religion)|Confession]]), [[Anointing of the Sick]] and [[Matrimony]] (see [[Christian views on marriage]]).<ref name="ODCC1435" />
Taken together, these are the [[Sacraments of the Catholic Church|Seven Sacraments]] as recognized by churches in the [[High Church]] tradition—notably [[Sacraments of the Catholic Church|Catholic]], [[Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodox]], [[Independent Catholic Churches|Independent Catholic]], [[Old Catholic]], many [[Anglican sacraments|Anglicans]] and some [[Lutherans]]. Most other denominations and traditions typically affirm only Baptism and Eucharist as sacraments, while some Protestant groups, such as the Quakers, reject sacramental theology.<ref name="ODCC1435" /> [[Christian denominations]], such as [[Baptists]], which believe these rites do not communicate grace, prefer to call Baptism and Holy Communion ''[[Ordinance (Christian)|ordinances]]'' rather than sacraments.
In addition to this, the [[Church of the East]] has two additional sacraments in place of the traditional sacraments of Matrimony and the Anointing of the Sick. These include [[Holy Leaven]] (Melka) and the [[sign of the cross]].<ref name="Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East, Archdiocese of Australia, New Zealand and Lebanon">''Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East, Archdiocese of Australia, New Zealand and Lebanon.''</ref>
<gallery widths="200px" heights="150px">
File:Skondals kyrka 2005.jpg|[[Baptism]], specifically [[infant baptism]], in the [[Lutheran]] tradition
File:Исповедь берн собор.jpg|A penitent [[Sacrament of Penance|confessing]] his sins in a [[Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church|Ukrainian Catholic]] church
File:Methodistcommunion3.jpg|A [[Methodism|Methodist]] minister celebrating the [[Eucharist]]
File:Anglican confirmation in Helsinki.jpg|[[Confirmation]] being administered in an [[Anglican Communion|Anglican]] church
File:Cheirotonia_Presbyter_1.jpeg|[[Ordination]] of a priest in the [[Eastern Orthodox]] tradition
File:Crowning in Syro-Malabar Nasrani Wedding by Mar Gregory Karotemprel.jpg|Crowning during [[Christian views on marriage|Holy Matrimony]] in the [[Syro-Malabar Catholic Church]]
File:2017-04-12--Service of the Sacrament of Holy Unction, on Holy Wednesday.jpg|Service of the Sacrament of [[Anointing of the Sick|Holy Unction]] served on Great and Holy Wednesday
</gallery>
===Liturgical calendar===
{{Main|Liturgical year}}
{{See also|Calendar of saints}}
[[File:Nativity tree2011.jpg|thumb|left|A [[nativity scene|depiction of the Nativity]] with a [[Christmas tree]] backdrop]]
Catholics, Anglicans, Eastern Christians and traditional Protestant communities frame worship around the [[liturgical year]]. The liturgical cycle divides the year into a series of [[season]]s, each with their theological emphases, and modes of prayer, which can be signified by different ways of decorating churches, colours of [[parament]]s and [[vestment]]s for clergy,<ref name="calendar">{{cite web|last1=Fortescue|first1=Adrian|title=Christian Calendar|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03158a.htm|website=The Catholic Encyclopedia.|publisher=Robert Appleton Company|accessdate=18 July 2014|year=1912}}</ref> scriptural readings, themes for preaching and even different traditions and practices often observed personally or in the home.
Western Christian liturgical calendars are based on the cycle of the [[Roman Rite]] of the Catholic Church,<ref name="calendar" /> and Eastern Christians use analogous calendars based on the cycle of their respective [[Rite#Christian|rites]]. Calendars set aside holy days, such as [[Solemnity|solemnities]] which commemorate an event in the life of Jesus, Mary or the [[saint]]s, and periods of [[fasting]], such as [[Lent]] and other pious events such as [[memoria]] or lesser festivals commemorating saints. Christian groups that do not follow a liturgical tradition often retain certain celebrations, such as [[Christmas]], [[Easter]] and [[Pentecost]]: these are the celebrations of Christ's birth, resurrection and the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the Church, respectively. A few denominations make no use of a liturgical calendar.<ref>Hickman. ''Handbook of the Christian Year''.</ref>
===Symbols===
{{Main|Christian symbolism}}
[[File:Nideggen-St.Johannes Baptist249.JPG|thumb|right|upright=1.15|The [[Christian cross|cross]] and the fish are two common symbols of [[Jesus Christ]]. The letters of the Greek word ΙΧΘΥΣ [[Ichthys]] (fish) form an acronym for "Ἰησοῦς Χριστός, Θεοῦ Υἱός, Σωτήρ", which translates into English as "Jesus Christ, God's Son, Savior".]]
Christianity has not generally practiced [[Aniconism in Christianity|aniconism]], the avoidance or prohibition of devotional images, even if early [[Jewish Christian]]s and some modern [[Christian denomination|denomination]]s, invoking the [[Ten Commandments|Decalogue's]] prohibition of [[idolatry]], avoided figures in their symbols.
The [[Christian cross|cross]], today one of the most widely recognized symbols, was used by Christians from the earliest times.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-04/anf04-34.htm |title=ANF04. Fathers of the Third Century: Tertullian, Part Fourth; Minucius Felix; Commodian; Origen, Parts First and Second | Christian Classics Ethereal Library |publisher=Ccel.org |date=1 June 2005 |accessdate=5 May 2009}}</ref><ref>Minucius Felix speaks of the cross of Jesus in its familiar form, likening it to objects with a crossbeam or to a man with arms outstretched in prayer ([http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-04/anf04-34.htm#P5713_906729 Octavius of Minucius Felix], chapter XXIX).</ref> Tertullian, in his book ''De Corona'', tells how it was already a tradition for Christians to trace the sign of the cross on their foreheads.<ref>"At every forward step and movement, at every going in and out, when we put on our clothes and shoes, when we bathe, when we sit at table, when we light the lamps, on couch, on seat, in all the ordinary actions of daily life, we trace upon the forehead the sign." (Tertullian, [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf03.iv.vi.iii.html ''De Corona'', chapter 3])</ref> Although the cross was known to the early Christians, the [[crucifix]] did not appear in use until the 5th century.<ref name="soc">Dilasser. ''The Symbols of the Church''.</ref>
Among the earliest Christian symbols, that of the fish or [[Ichthys]] seems to have ranked first in importance, as seen on monumental sources such as tombs from the first decades of the 2nd century.<ref name="cefish">''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', "[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06083a.htm Symbolism of the Fish]".</ref> Its popularity seemingly arose from the Greek word ''ichthys'' (fish) forming an [[acronym]] for the Greek phrase ''Iesous Christos Theou Yios Soter'' (Ἰησοῦς Χριστός, Θεοῦ Υἱός, Σωτήρ),{{refn|group=note|''Iesous Christos Theou '''H'''yios Soter'' would be a more complete transliteration; in Greek though, the daseia or [[spiritus asper]] was not—commonly—marked in the [[majuscule]] script of the time.}} (Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior), a concise summary of Christian faith.<ref name="cefish" />
Other major Christian symbols include the [[Chi-Rho|chi-rho monogram]], the [[dove]] (symbolic of the Holy Spirit), the sacrificial lamb (representing Christ's sacrifice), the [[vine]] (symbolizing the connection of the Christian with Christ) and many others. These all derive from passages of the New Testament.<ref name="soc"/>
===Baptism===
{{Main|Baptism}}
[[File:Almeida Júnior - Batismo de Jesus, 1895.JPG|thumb|upright=0.9|The baptism of Jesus depicted by [[José Ferraz de Almeida Júnior|Almeida Júnior]]]]
Baptism is the ritual act, with the use of water, by which a person is admitted to membership of the [[Christian Church|Church]]. Beliefs on baptism vary among denominations. Differences occur firstly on whether the act has any spiritual significance. Some, such as the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, as well as Lutherans and Anglicans, hold to the doctrine of [[baptismal regeneration]], which affirms that baptism creates or strengthens a person's faith, and is intimately linked to salvation. Others view baptism as a purely symbolic act, an external public declaration of the inward change which has taken place in the person, but not as spiritually efficacious. Secondly, there are differences of opinion on the methodology of the act. These methods are: by [[Immersion baptism|''immersion'']]; if immersion is total, by ''submersion''; by [[affusion]] (pouring); and by [[aspersion]] (sprinkling). Those who hold the first view may also adhere to the tradition of [[infant baptism]];<ref>"Through Baptism we are freed from sin and reborn as sons of God; we become members of Christ, are incorporated into the Church and made sharers in her mission" ([http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P3G.HTM Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1213] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160722003736/http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P3G.HTM |date=22 July 2016 }}); "Holy Baptism is the sacrament by which God adopts us as his children and makes us members of Christ's Body, the Church, and inheritors of the kingdom of God" ([http://anglicansonline.org/basics/catechism.html#Holy Book of Common Prayer, 1979, Episcopal );] "Baptism is the sacrament of initiation and incorporation into the body of Christ" ([http://www.backriverumc.com/userFiles/1257/by_water_and_the_spirit.pdf By Water and The Spirit – The Official United Methodist Understanding of Baptism (PDF)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313053601/http://www.backriverumc.com/userFiles/1257/by_water_and_the_spirit.pdf |date=13 March 2016 }};<br />"As an initiatory rite into membership of the Family of God, baptismal candidates are symbolically purified or washed as their sins have been forgiven and washed away" ([[William H. Brackney]], [http://www.baptisthistory.org/pamphlets/baptism.htm Doing Baptism Baptist Style{{snd}} Believer's Baptism] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100107183031/http://www.baptisthistory.org/pamphlets/baptism.htm |date=7 January 2010 }})</ref> the [[Orthodox Church]]es all practice infant baptism and always baptize by total immersion repeated three times in the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit.<ref>"After the proclamation of faith, the baptismal water is prayed over and blessed as the sign of the goodness of God's creation. The person to be baptized is also prayed over and blessed with sanctified oil as the sign that his creation by God is holy and good. And then, after the solemn proclamation of "Alleluia" (God be praised), the person is immersed three times in the water in the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit" ([http://www.oca.org/OCchapter.asp?SID=2&ID=51 Orthodox Church in America: Baptism).]</ref><ref>"In the Orthodox Church we totally immerse, because such total immersion symbolizes death. What death? The death of the "old, sinful man". After Baptism we are freed from the dominion of sin, even though after Baptism we retain an inclination and tendency toward evil.", Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia, article "[http://www.greekorthodox.org.au/general/faq/faqbaptism Baptism] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140930002357/http://www.greekorthodox.org.au/general/faq/faqbaptism |date=30 September 2014 }}".</ref> The Catholic Church also practices infant baptism,<ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p1s2c1p7.htm#403 403], [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p2s2c1a1.htm 1231, 1233, 1250, 1252].</ref> usually by affusion, and utilizing the [[Trinitarian formula]].<ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p2s2c1a1.htm#1240 1240].</ref>
===Prayer===
{{Main|Prayer in Christianity}}
Jesus' teaching on prayer in the [[Sermon on the Mount]] displays a distinct lack of interest in the external aspects of prayer. A concern with the techniques of prayer is condemned as 'pagan', and instead a simple trust in God's fatherly goodness is encouraged.{{bibleref2c|Mat.|6:5–15}} Elsewhere in the New Testament this same freedom of access to God is also emphasized.{{bibleref2c|Phil.|4:6}}{{bibleref2c|Jam.|5:13–19}} This confident position should be understood in light of Christian belief in the unique relationship between the believer and Christ through the indwelling of the Holy Spirit.<ref name="NBDprayer">{{cite encyclopedia |editor=Alexander, T. D. |editor2=Rosner, B. S |year=2001 |title =Prayer |encyclopedia= New Dictionary of Biblical Theology|publisher= Intervarsity Press |location=Downers Grove, IL |id= }}</ref>
In subsequent Christian traditions, certain physical gestures are emphasized, including medieval gestures such as [[genuflection]] or making the [[sign of the cross]]. [[Kneeling]], bowing and [[prostration]]s (see also [[poklon]]) are often practiced in more traditional branches of Christianity. Frequently in Western Christianity the hands are placed palms together and forward as in the feudal [[commendation ceremony]]. At other times the older [[orans]] posture may be used, with palms up and elbows in.
''Intercessory prayer'' is prayer offered for the benefit of other people. There are many intercessory prayers recorded in the Bible, including prayers of the [[Apostle Peter]] on behalf of sick persons{{bibleref2c|Acts|9:40}} and by [[prophet]]s of the Old Testament in favor of other people.{{bibleref2c|1Ki|17:19–22}} In the [[Epistle of James]], no distinction is made between the intercessory prayer offered by ordinary believers and the prominent Old Testament prophet [[Elijah]].{{bibleref2c|Jam|5:16–18}} The effectiveness of prayer in Christianity derives from the power of God rather than the status of the one praying.<ref name="NBDprayer"/>
The ancient church, in both [[Eastern Christianity]] and [[Western Christianity]], developed a tradition of asking for the [[intercession of saints|intercession of (deceased) saints]], and this remains the practice of most [[Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodox]], [[Catholic Church|Catholic]], and some [[Anglican]] churches. Churches of the Protestant Reformation, however, rejected prayer to the saints, largely on the basis of the sole mediatorship of Christ.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author1=Ferguson, S. B. |author2=Packer, J. |last-author-amp=yes |year=1988 |title =Saints |encyclopedia= New Dictionary of Theology|publisher= Intervarsity Press |location=Downers Grove, IL |id= }}</ref> The reformer [[Huldrych Zwingli]] admitted that he had offered prayers to the saints until his reading of the Bible convinced him that this was [[idolatry in Christianity|idolatrous]].<ref>Madeleine Gray, ''The Protestant Reformation'', (Sussex Academic Press, 2003), page 140.</ref>
According to the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]: "Prayer is the raising of one's mind and heart to God or the requesting of good things from God."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.va/archive/catechism/p4s1.htm |title=Catechism of the Catholic Church: Part Four – Christian Prayer |publisher=Va |date= |accessdate=19 November 2010 }}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> The [[Book of Common Prayer]] in the Anglican tradition is a guide which provides a set order for church services, containing set prayers, scripture readings, and hymns or sung Psalms.
==History==
{{Main|History of Christianity}}
===Early Church and Christological Councils===
{{Main|Origins of Christianity|Early Christianity|First seven Ecumenical Councils}}
[[File:Inside of Saint Ananias.jpg|thumb|upright=1.05|right|[[House of Saint Ananias|Chapel of Saint Ananias]], [[Damascus]], [[Syria]], an early example of a Christian house of worship; built in the 1st century AD]]
[[File:Ephesus IchthysCrop.jpg|thumb|upright=1.05|right|An early circular [[ichthys]] symbol, created by combining the Greek letters [[ΙΧΘΥΣ]] into a wheel. [[Ephesus]], Asia Minor.]]
[[File:Mor-mattai.png|thumb|right|upright=1.05|The [[Mar Mattai monastery|Monastery of St. Matthew]], located atop [[Mount Alfaf]] in [[northern Iraq]], is recognized as one of the oldest Christian monasteries in existence.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cso-france.voila.net/Monastere_Saint_Mattai.htm|language=fr|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303004713/http://cso-france.voila.net/Monastere_Saint_Mattai.htm|title=Monastère de Mor Mattai - Mossul - Irak|archivedate=3 March 2014}}</ref>]]
[[File:Kadisha Valley cross.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.05|[[Kadisha Valley]], [[Lebanon]], home to some of the earliest Christian monasteries in the world]]
Christianity grew out of [[Judaism]]<ref name="Benko1984"/><ref name="Bergen2000"/><ref name="Cory2015"/> as a [[Second Temple Judaism|Second Temple Judaic]] sect in the 1st century<ref name="Robinson">{{harvnb|Robinson|2000|p=229}}</ref><ref name="Esler">Esler. ''The Early Christian World''. p. 157f.</ref> in the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] province of [[Judea (Roman province)|Judea]]. Other religious influences of [[early Christianity]] are [[Zoroastrianism]] and [[Gnosticism]].<ref group="note" name="name">The term "Christian" ({{Lang-el|Χριστιανός}}) was first used in reference to Jesus's [[Disciple (Christianity)|disciples]] in the city of [[Antioch]]{{bibleref2c|Acts|11:26}} about 44 AD, meaning "followers of Christ". The name was given by the non-Jewish inhabitants of Antioch to the disciples of Jesus. In the New Testament, the names by which the disciples were known among themselves were "brethren", "the faithful", "elect", "saints" and "believers". The earliest recorded use of the term "Christianity" ({{Lang-el|Χριστιανισμός|links=no}}) was by [[Ignatius of Antioch]], around 100 AD.{{ref|Elwell/Comfort. ''Tyndale Bible Dictionary'', pp. 266, 828.|name="Christian"}}</ref><ref name="Robinson"/><ref name="Esler"/><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/8616877|title=Zoroastrianism: The Iranian Roots of Christianity|first=Bryan|last=Rennie}}</ref> John Bowker states that Christian ideas such as "angels, the end of the world, a final judgment, the resurrection and heaven and hell received form and substance from ... Zoroastrian beliefs".<ref>{{cite book |title= World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained |edition= |last= Bowker|first= John|authorlink= John Bowker (theologian)|year= 1997|publisher= Dorling Kindersley Limited|location= London|isbn= 978-0-7894-1439-7|page= 13}}</ref> Its earliest development took place under the leadership of the remaining [[Twelve Apostles]], particularly [[Saint Peter]], and [[Paul the Apostle]], followed by the early [[bishop]]s, whom Christians consider the [[apostolic succession|successors of the Apostles]].
According to the Christian scriptures, Christians were from the beginning subject to [[Persecution of Christians|persecution]] by some Jewish and Roman religious authorities, who disagreed with the apostles' teachings (See [[Split of early Christianity and Judaism]]). This involved punishments, including death, for Christians such as [[Stephen]]{{bibleref2c|Acts|7:59}} and [[James, son of Zebedee]].{{bibleref2c|Acts|12:2}} Larger-scale persecutions followed at the hands of the authorities of the Roman Empire, first in the year 64, when [[Emperor Nero]] blamed them for the [[Great Fire of Rome]].{{citation Needed|date=October 2018}} According to Church tradition, it was under Nero's persecution that early Church leaders Peter and [[Paul of Tarsus]] were each martyred in Rome.{{citation Needed|date=October 2018}}
Further widespread [[Persecution of early Christians by the Romans|persecutions]] of the Church occurred under nine subsequent Roman emperors, most intensely under [[Decius]] and [[Diocletian]]. From the year 150, Christian teachers began to produce theological and apologetic works aimed at defending the faith. These authors are known as the [[Church Fathers]], and study of them is called [[Patristics]]. Notable early Fathers include [[Ignatius of Antioch]], [[Polycarp]], [[Justin Martyr]], [[Irenaeus]], [[Tertullian]], [[Clement of Alexandria]] and [[Origen]]. However, [[Armenia]] is considered the first nation to accept Christianity in AD 301.<ref name="Armenia">{{cite web|last=Gill|first=N.S.|title=Which Nation First Adopted Christianity?|url=http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/neareast/f/1stchristian.htm|publisher=About.com|accessdate=8 October 2011|quote="Armenia is considered the first nation to have adopted Christianity as the state religion in a traditional date of c. A.D. 301."}}</ref><ref name="CIA">{{cite web |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]|title=The World Factbook: Armenia|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/am.html|accessdate =8 October 2011}}</ref><ref name="almanac">{{cite book |last=Brunner|first=Borgna|title=Time Almanac with Information Please 2007|page=685|isbn=978-1-933405-49-0 |year=2006 |publisher=Time Home Entertainment |location=New York}}</ref>
King Trdat IV made Christianity the state religion in Armenia between 301 and 314. It was not an entirely new religion in Armenia. It penetrated into the country from at least the third century but may have been present even earlier.<ref name="maarten">{{cite journal|last1=Theo Maarten van Lint|title=The Formation of Armenian Identity in the First Millenium|journal=Church History and Religious Culture|date=2009|volume= 89| issue = 1/3|page=269}}</ref>
====End of Roman persecution under Emperor Constantine (AD 313)====
[[File:Jesus-Christ-from-Hagia-Sophia.jpg|thumb|upright=1.05|An example of Byzantine pictorial art, the [[Deësis]] mosaic at the [[Hagia Sophia#Deësis mosaic|Hagia Sophia]] in [[Constantinople]]]]
State persecution ceased in the 4th century, when [[Constantine I]] issued an [[Edict of Milan|edict of toleration]] in 313. At that point, Christianity was still a minority belief comprising perhaps only five percent of the Roman population.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Christianity: A Global History|last=Chidester|first=David|publisher=HarperOne|year=2000|isbn=|location=|pages=91}}</ref> Influenced by his adviser [[Mardonius (philosopher)|Mardonius]], Constantine's nephew [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]] unsuccessfully tried to suppress Christianity.<ref name="Ricciotti">{{harvnb|Ricciotti|1999|p=}}</ref> On 27 February 380, Emperor [[Theodosius I]] enacted a law establishing [[First Council of Nicaea|Nicene]] Christianity as the [[state church of the Roman Empire]].<ref>[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/theodcodeXVI.html Theodosian Code XVI.i.2], in: Bettenson. ''Documents of the Christian Church''. p. 31.</ref> As soon as it became connected to the state, Christianity grew wealthy; the Church solicited donations from the rich and could now own land.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Empires in World History: Power and the Politics of Difference|last=Burbank|first=Jane|last2=Copper|first2=Frederick|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2010|isbn=|location=Princeton|pages=64}}</ref> From at least the 4th century, Christianity has played a prominent role in the [[history of Western civilization|shaping of Western civilization]].<ref name="Orlandis">Orlandis, ''A Short History of the Catholic Church'' (1993), preface.</ref>
Constantine was also instrumental in the convocation of the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in 325, which sought to address the [[Arianism|Arian heresy]] and formulated the [[Nicene Creed]], which is still used by the [[Catholic Church]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], [[Anglican Communion]] and many [[Protestant]] churches.<ref name="UMC—Our Common Heritage as Christians"/> Nicaea was the first of a series of [[Ecumenical council|Ecumenical (worldwide) Councils]] which formally defined critical elements of the theology of the Church, notably concerning [[Christology]].<ref name="McManners37">McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', p. 37f.</ref> The [[Assyrian Church of the East]] did not accept the third and following Ecumenical Councils, and are still separate today.
The presence of Christianity in Africa began in the middle of the 1st century in [[Egypt]], and by the end of the 2nd century in the region around [[Carthage]]. [[Mark the Evangelist]] is claimed to have started the [[Church of Alexandria]] in about AD 43; various later churches and denominations claim this as their own legacy including the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria]].<ref>[[Eusebius of Caesarea]], the author of ''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Ecclesiastical History]]'' in the 4th century, states that St. Mark came to Egypt in the first or third year of the reign of Emperor Claudius, i.e. 41 or 43 AD. "Two Thousand years of Coptic Christianity" Otto F.A. Meinardus p28.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bethel.edu/~letnie/AfricanChristianity/WesternNorthAfricaHomepage.html |title=A History of the Christian Church in Western North Africa |author=Neil Lettinga |date= |website= |publisher= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20010730174045/http://www.bethel.edu/~letnie/AfricanChristianity/WesternNorthAfricaHomepage.html |archivedate=30 July 2001 |deadurl=yes}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.allaboutreligion.org/history-of-christianity-in-africa-faq.htm |title=Allaboutreligion.org |publisher=Allaboutreligion.org |date= |accessdate=19 November 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101116113632/https://allaboutreligion.org/history-of-christianity-in-africa-faq.htm |archivedate=16 November 2010 |df=dmy }}</ref> Important Africans who influenced the early development of Christianity include [[Tertullian]], [[Clement of Alexandria]], [[Origen of Alexandria]], [[Cyprian]], [[Athanasius]] and [[Augustine of Hippo]]. The later rise of [[Islam]] in [[North Africa]] reduced the size and numbers of Christian congregations, leaving in large numbers only the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic Church]] in Egypt, the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]] in the [[Horn of Africa]] and the [[Christianity in Sudan|Nubian Church]] in the Sudan (Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia).
In terms of prosperity and cultural life, the [[Byzantine Empire]] was one of the peaks in [[Christian history]] and [[Christian civilization]],<ref>{{harvnb|Cameron|2006|pp=42}}.</ref> and [[Constantinople]] remained the leading city of the [[Christian world]] in size, wealth and culture.<ref>{{harvnb|Cameron|2006|pp=47}}.</ref> [[Greek scholars in the Renaissance|There was a renewed interest in classical Greek philosophy]], as well as an increase in literary output in vernacular Greek.<ref name="Browning-1992-190-218">{{harvnb|Browning|1992|pp=198–208}}.</ref> Byzantine art and literature held a pre-eminent place in [[Europe]], and the cultural impact of [[Byzantine art]] on the west during this period was enormous and of long lasting significance.<ref name="Browning-1992-218">{{harvnb|Browning|1992|p=218}}.</ref>
===Early Middle Ages===
With the decline and fall of the Roman Empire in the west, the [[papacy]] became a political player, first visible in [[Pope Leo I|Pope Leo]]'s diplomatic dealings with [[Attila the Hun|Huns]] and [[Vandals]].<ref name = "Gonzalez-p238"/> The church also entered into a long period of missionary activity and expansion among the various tribes. While [[Arianism|Arianists]] instituted the death penalty for practicing pagans (see [[Massacre of Verden]] as example), what would later become [[Catholicism]] also spread among the [[Hungarians]], the [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]],<ref name = "Gonzalez-p238">Gonzalez, ''The Story of Christianity'', pp. 238–42.</ref> the [[Celts|Celtic]], the [[Baltic peoples|Baltic]] and some [[Slavic peoples]]. Christianity has been an important part of the shaping of [[Western civilization]], at least since the 4th century.<ref name="Cambridge University Historical Series"/><ref name="Caltron J.H Hayas"/><ref name="Orlandis"/>
Around 500, [[St. Benedict]] set out his [[Monastic Rule]], establishing a system of regulations for the foundation and running of [[monasteries]].<ref name = "Gonzalez-p238"/> [[Monasticism]] became a powerful force throughout Europe,<ref name = "Gonzalez-p238"/> and gave rise to many early centers of learning, most famously in [[Ireland]], [[Scotland]] and [[Gaul]], contributing to the [[Carolingian Renaissance]] of the 9th century.
In the 7th century [[Muslim conquest of Syria|Muslims conquered Syria]] (including [[Jerusalem]]), [[North Africa]] and [[Spain]], converting some of the Christian population to [[Islam]], and placing the rest under a separate [[Dhimmi|legal status]]. Part of the Muslims' success was due to the exhaustion of the [[Byzantine empire]] in its decades long conflict with [[Persia]].<ref>Mullin, 2008, p. 88.</ref> Beginning in the 8th century, with the rise of [[Carolingian]] leaders, the papacy began to find greater political support in the [[Frankish Kingdom]].<ref>Mullin, 2008, p. 93–4.</ref>
The Middle Ages brought about major changes within the church. [[Pope Gregory the Great]] dramatically reformed [[Ecclesiastical polity|ecclesiastical structure]] and administration.<ref>Gonzalez, ''The Story of Christianity'', pp. 244–47.</ref> In the early 8th century, [[iconoclasm]] became a divisive issue, when it was sponsored by the [[Byzantium|Byzantine]] emperors. The [[Second Council of Nicaea|Second Ecumenical Council of Nicaea]] (787) finally pronounced in favor of icons.<ref>Gonzalez, ''The Story of Christianity'', p. 260.</ref> In the early 10th century, Western Christian monasticism was further rejuvenated through the leadership of the great Benedictine monastery of [[Cluny Abbey|Cluny]].<ref>Gonzalez, ''The Story of Christianity'', pp. 278–81.</ref>
Hebraism, like Hellenism, has been an all-important factor in the development of Western Civilization; Judaism, as the precursor of Christianity, has indirectly had much to do with shaping the ideals and morality of western nations since the Christian era.<ref name="Caltron J.H Hayas" />
===High and Late Middle Ages===
[[File:Passages d'outremer Fr5594, fol. 19r, Concile de Clermont.jpg|thumb|left|[[Pope Urban II]] at the [[Council of Clermont]], where he preached the [[First Crusade]]]]
In the west, from the 11th century onward, older cathedral schools developed into universities (see [[University of Oxford]], [[University of Paris]] and [[University of Bologna]].) The traditional [[medieval universities]]—evolved from Catholic and Protestant church schools—then established specialized academic structures for properly educating greater numbers of students as [[profession]]als. Prof. Walter Rüegg, editor of ''[[A History of the University in Europe]]'', reports that universities then only trained students to become clerics, lawyers, civil servants and physicians.<ref>Rudy, ''The Universities of Europe, 1100–1914'', p. 40</ref>
Originally teaching only [[theology]], [[universities]] steadily added subjects including [[medicine]], [[philosophy]] and [[law]], becoming the direct ancestors of modern institutions of learning.<ref>Gonzalez, ''The Story of Christianity'', pp. 305, 312, 314f..</ref>
The university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the [[History of Christianity|Medieval Christian]] setting.<ref name="Rüegg, Walter 1992, pp. XIX">Rüegg, Walter: "Foreword. The University as a European Institution", in: ''A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages'', Cambridge University Press, 1992, {{ISBN|0-521-36105-2}}, pp. XIX–XX</ref><ref name=verger1999>{{cite book |last=Verger |first=Jacques |date=1999 |authorlink=:fr:Jacques Verger|title=Culture, enseignement et société en Occident aux XIIe et XIIIe siècles |edition=1st |trans-title=|language=French |location= |publisher=Presses universitaires de Rennes in Rennes |isbn=978-2868473448 |url=https://openlibrary.org/works/OL822497W |accessdate=17 June 2014 |ref=harv}}</ref> Prior to the establishment of universities, European higher education took place for hundreds of years in Christian [[cathedral school]]s or [[monastic school]]s (''Scholae monasticae''), in which [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s taught classes; evidence of these immediate forerunners of the later university at many places dates back to the 6th century AD.<ref>Riché, Pierre (1978): "Education and Culture in the Barbarian West: From the Sixth through the Eighth Century", Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, {{ISBN|0-87249-376-8}}, pp. 126–7, 282–98</ref>
Accompanying the rise of the "new towns" throughout Europe, [[mendicant order]]s were founded, bringing the [[Consecrated life (Catholic Church)|consecrated religious life]] out of the monastery and into the new urban setting. The two principal mendicant movements were the [[Franciscans]]<ref>Gonzalez, ''The Story of Christianity'', pp. 303–07, 310f., 384–86.</ref> and the [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]]<ref>Gonzalez, ''The Story of Christianity'', pp. 305, 310f., 316f.</ref> founded by [[Francis of Assisi|St. Francis]] and [[St. Dominic]] respectively. Both orders made significant contributions to the development of the great universities of Europe. Another new order were the [[Cistercians]], whose large isolated monasteries spearheaded the settlement of former wilderness areas. In this period church building and ecclesiastical architecture reached new heights, culminating in the orders of [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] and [[Gothic architecture]] and the building of the great European cathedrals.<ref>Gonzalez, ''The Story of Christianity'', pp. 321–23, 365f.</ref>
From 1095 under the pontificate of [[Urban II]], the [[Crusades]] were launched.<ref>Gonzalez, ''The Story of Christianity'', pp. 292–300.</ref> These were a series of military campaigns in the [[Holy Land]] and elsewhere, initiated in response to pleas from the Byzantine Emperor [[Alexios I]] for aid against [[Turkish people|Turkish]] expansion. The Crusades ultimately failed to stifle Islamic aggression and even contributed to Christian enmity with the sacking of [[Constantinople]] during the [[Fourth Crusade]].<ref>Riley-Smith. ''The Oxford History of the Crusades''.</ref>
Over a period stretching from the 7th to the 13th century, the Christian Church underwent gradual alienation, resulting in a [[East-West Schism|schism]] dividing it into a so-called Latin or [[Western Christian]] branch, the Catholic Church,<ref>The Western Church was called Latin at the time by the Eastern Christians and non Christians due to its conducting of its rituals and affairs in the Latin language</ref> and an [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern]], largely Greek, branch, the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church]]. These two churches disagree on a number of administrative, liturgical and doctrinal issues, most notably [[papal primacy|papal primacy of jurisdiction]].<ref name="Orthodox Information Centre-Great Schism">{{cite web|url = http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/general/greatschism.aspx| title = The Great Schism: The Estrangement of Eastern and Western Christendom|publisher = Orthodox Information Centre|accessdate = 26 May 2007}}</ref><ref name="SandSp91">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 91</ref> The [[Second Council of Lyon]] (1274) and the [[Council of Florence]] (1439) attempted to reunite the churches, but in both cases the Eastern Orthodox refused to implement the decisions and the two principal churches remain in schism to the present day. However, the Catholic Church has achieved union with various [[Eastern Catholic Churches|smaller eastern churches]].
In the thirteenth century a new emphasis on Jesus' suffering, exemplified by the Franciscans' preaching, had the consequence of turning worshippers' attention towards Jews, on whom [[Jewish deicide|Christians had placed the blame for Jesus' death]]. Christianity's limited tolerance of Jews was not new—Augustine of Hippo had said that Jews should not be allowed to enjoy the citizenship that Christians took for granted—but the growing antipathy towards Jews was a factor that led to [[Edict of Expulsion|the expulsion of Jews from England in 1290]], the first of many such expulsions in Europe.<ref name="diarmaid">{{cite book |last=MacCulloch |first=Diarmaid |title=Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years |publisher=Penguin |date=2011 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7x4m20TRYzQC|isbn=9781101189993 }}</ref><ref name="telushkin">{{cite book |last=Telushkin |first=Joseph |title=Jewish Literacy |publisher=HarperCollins |page=192–193 |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-688-08506-3 }}</ref>
Beginning around 1184, following the crusade against the [[Cathars|Cathar]] heresy,<ref>Gonzalez, ''The Story of Christianity'', pp. 300, 304–05.</ref> various institutions, broadly referred to as the [[Inquisition]], were established with the aim of suppressing [[heresy]] and securing religious and doctrinal unity within Christianity through [[religious conversion|conversion]] and prosecution.<ref>Gonzalez, ''The Story of Christianity'', pp. 310, 383, 385, 391.</ref>
===Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation===
[[File:95Thesen.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.05|[[Martin Luther]] started the Protestant Reformation in 1517 with the [[The Ninety-Five Theses|Ninety-Five Theses]], going against the Catholic interpretation of the Bible.]]
{{Main|Protestant Reformation|Counter-Reformation}}
{{See also|European wars of religion}}
15th-century [[Renaissance]] brought about a renewed interest in ancient and classical learning. Another major schism, the [[Reformation]], resulted in the splintering of the [[Western Christianity|Western Christendom]] into several branches.<ref name="Simon-120-121">Simon. ''Great Ages of Man: The Reformation''. p. 7.</ref> [[Martin Luther]] in 1517 [[95 Theses|protested]] against the sale of [[indulgences]] and soon moved on to deny several key points of Catholic [[doctrine]].<ref name="Simon">Simon. ''Great Ages of Man: The Reformation''. pp. 39, 55–61.</ref>
Other reformers like [[Huldrych Zwingli|Zwingli]], [[Johannes Oecolampadius|Oecolampadius]], [[John Calvin|Calvin]], [[John Knox|Knox]] and [[Jacobus Arminius|Arminius]] further criticized Catholic teaching and worship. These challenges developed into the movement called [[Protestantism]], which repudiated the [[papal primacy|primacy of the pope]], the role of tradition, the [[Catholic sacraments|seven sacraments]] and other doctrines and practices.<ref name="Simon" /> The [[English Reformation|Reformation in England]] began in 1534, when [[Henry VIII of England|King Henry VIII]] had himself [[Act of Supremacy|declared head]] of the [[Church of England]]. Beginning in 1536, the monasteries throughout England, Wales and Ireland were [[Dissolution of the monasteries|dissolved]].<ref name="Schama">Schama. ''A History of Britain''. pp. 306–10.</ref>
[[Thomas Müntzer]], [[Andreas Karlstadt]] and other theologians perceived both the Catholic Church and the confessions of the [[Magisterial Reformation]] as corrupted. Their activity brought about the [[Radical Reformation]], which gave birth to various [[Anabaptist]] denominations.
[[File:Michelangelo's Pieta 5450 cropncleaned edit.jpg|thumb|upright=1.05|[[Michelangelo]]'s ''[[Michelangelo's Pietà|Pietà]]'' in [[St. Peter's Basilica]], The Catholic Church was among the patronages of the [[Renaissance]].<ref name="natgeo 254">National Geographic, 254.</ref><ref>Jensen, De Lamar (1992), ''Renaissance Europe'', {{ISBN|0-395-88947-2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Levey|first=Michael|title=Early Renaissance|publisher=Penguin Books|year=1967}}</ref>]]
Partly in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Church engaged in a substantial process of reform and renewal, known as the [[Counter-Reformation]] or Catholic Reform.<ref name="Bokenkotter242">Bokenkotter, ''A Concise History of the Catholic Church'', pp. 242–44.</ref> The [[Council of Trent]] clarified and reasserted Catholic doctrine. During the following centuries, competition between Catholicism and Protestantism became deeply entangled with political struggles among European states.<ref name="Simon3">Simon. ''Great Ages of Man: The Reformation''. pp. 109–120.</ref>
Meanwhile, the discovery of America by [[Christopher Columbus]] in 1492 brought about a new wave of missionary activity. Partly from missionary zeal, but under the impetus of [[Colonialism|colonial expansion]] by the European powers, Christianity spread to the Americas, Oceania, [[East Asia]] and [[sub-Saharan Africa]].
Throughout Europe, the divides caused by the Reformation led to outbreaks of [[religious violence]] and the establishment of separate state churches in Europe. [[Lutheranism]] spread into northern, central and eastern parts of present-day Germany, [[Livonia]] and Scandinavia. [[Anglicanism]] was established in England in 1534. [[Calvinism]] and its varieties (such as [[Presbyterianism]]) were introduced in [[Scotland]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Hungary]], [[Switzerland]] and [[France]]. [[Arminianism]] gained followers in the Netherlands and [[Frisia]]. Ultimately, these differences led to the outbreak of [[religious war|conflicts]] in which religion played a key factor. The [[Thirty Years' War]], the [[English Civil War]] and the [[French Wars of Religion]] are prominent examples. These events intensified the [[Christian debate on persecution and toleration]].<ref>A general overview about the English discussion is given in Coffey, ''Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England 1558–1689''.</ref>
===Post-Enlightenment===
[[File:Madonna and Child, Kakure Kirishitan.jpg|thumb|upright=1.05|right|A depiction of [[Madonna and Child]] in a 19th-century [[Kakure Kirishitan]] [[Ukiyo-e|Japanese woodcut]]]]
In the era known as the [[Great Divergence]], when in the West the [[Age of Enlightenment]] and the [[Scientific revolution]] brought about great societal changes, Christianity was confronted with various forms of [[skepticism]] and with certain modern [[Ideology|political ideologies]] such as versions of [[socialism]] and [[liberalism]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Novak|first=Michael|title=Catholic social thought and liberal institutions: Freedom with justice|year=1988|publisher=Transaction|isbn=978-0-88738-763-0|page=63|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7pb1GDmxA1UC&pg=PA63}}</ref> Events ranged from mere [[anti-clericalism]] to violent outbursts against Christianity such as the [[Dechristianisation of France during the French Revolution|Dechristianisation]] during the [[French Revolution]],<ref>Mortimer Chambers, ''The Western Experience'' (vol. 2) chapter 21.</ref> the [[Spanish Civil War]] and certain [[Marxism|Marxist]] movements, especially [[Russian Revolution (1917)|the Russian Revolution]] and the [[persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union]] under [[state atheism]].<ref>Religion and the State in Russia and China: Suppression, Survival, and Revival, by Christopher Marsh, page 47. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2011.</ref><ref>Inside Central Asia: A Political and Cultural History, by Dilip Hiro. Penguin, 2009.</ref><ref name="Adappur2000">{{cite book|last=Adappur|first=Abraham|title=Religion and the Cultural Crisis in India and the West|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=44DYAAAAMAAJ|year=2000|publisher=Intercultural Publications|language=English |isbn=978-81-85574-47-9|quote=Forced Conversion under Atheistic Regimes: It might be added that the most modern example of forced "conversions" came not from any theocratic state, but from a professedly atheist government — that of the Soviet Union under the Communists.}}</ref><ref>Geoffrey Blainey; A Short History of Christianity; Viking; 2011; p.494"</ref>
Especially pressing in Europe was the formation of [[nation states]] after the [[Napoleonic era]]. In all European countries, different Christian denominations found themselves in competition, to greater or lesser extents, with each other and with the state. Variables are the relative sizes of the denominations and the religious, political and ideological orientation of the state. Urs Altermatt of the [[University of Fribourg]], looking specifically at Catholicisms in Europe, identifies four models for the European nations. In traditionally Catholic-majority countries such as [[Belgium]], [[Spain]] and to some extent [[Austria]], religious and national communities are more or less identical. Cultural symbiosis and separation are found in [[Poland]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] and [[Switzerland]], all countries with competing denominations. Competition is found in [[Germany]], the [[Netherlands]] and again Switzerland, all countries with minority Catholic populations who to a greater or lesser extent did identify with the nation. Finally, separation between religion (again, specifically Catholicism) and the state is found to a great degree in France and [[Italy]], countries where the state actively opposed itself to the authority of the Catholic Church.<ref>{{cite book|last=Altermatt|first=Urs|title=Religion und Nation: Katholizismen im Europa des 19. und 20. Jahrhundert|year=2007|publisher=Kohlhammer|isbn=978-3-17-019977-4|pages=15–34|editor=Urs Altermatt, Franziska Metzger|language=German|chapter=Katholizismus und Nation: Vier Modelle in europäisch-vergleichender Perspektive}}</ref>
The combined factors of the formation of nation states and [[ultramontanism]], especially in Germany and the Netherlands but also in [[England]] (to a much lesser extent<ref>{{cite book|last=Heimann|first=Mary|title=Catholic Devotion in Victorian England|year=1995|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=978-0-19-820597-5|pages=165–73}}</ref>), often forced Catholic churches, organizations and believers to choose between the national demands of the state and the authority of the Church, specifically the papacy. This conflict came to a head in the [[First Vatican Council]], and in Germany would lead directly to the [[Kulturkampf]], where liberals and Protestants under the leadership of [[Otto von Bismarck|Bismarck]] managed to severely restrict Catholic expression and organization.
Christian commitment in Europe dropped as modernity and secularism came into their own in Europe,<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-12811197 | work=BBC News | title=Religion may become extinct in nine nations, study says | date=22 March 2011}}</ref> particularly in the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Estonia]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.ttcn.ne.jp/~honkawa/9460.html |title=図録▽世界各国の宗教 |publisher=.ttcn.ne.jp |date= |accessdate=17 August 2012}}</ref> while religious commitments in America have been generally high in comparison to Europe. The late 20th century has shown the shift of Christian adherence to the Third World and southern hemisphere in general, with the [[western civilization]] no longer the chief standard bearer of Christianity. Approximately 7.1 to 10% of [[Arabs]] are [[Arab Christians and Arabic-speaking Christians|Christians]],<ref name=Pacini>{{cite book |last=Fargues|first=Philippe |authorlink= |title=Christian Communities in the Middle East |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |doi= |isbn=978-0-19-829388-0 |chapter=A Demographic Perspective |editor1-last=Pacini|editor1-first=Andrea}}</ref> most prevalent in Egypt, Syria and Lebanon.
==Demographics==
{{Main|Christianity by country|Christian population growth|Christian denominations by membership}}
{{See also|Christendom|Christian state}}
With around 2.4 billion adherents,<ref name="World" /><ref name="gordonconwell.edu" /> split into three main branches of Catholic, Protestant and Eastern Orthodox, Christianity is the [[major religious groups|world's largest religion]].<ref name="PewDec2012" /> The Christian share of the world's population has stood at around 33% for the last hundred years, which means that one in three persons on earth are Christians. This masks a major shift in the demographics of Christianity; large increases in the developing world have been accompanied by substantial declines in the developed world, mainly in Europe and North America.<ref>Werner Ustorf. "A missiological postscript", in McLeod and Ustorf (eds), ''The Decline of Christendom in (Western) Europe, 1750–2000'', ([[Cambridge University Press]], 2003) pp. 219–20.</ref> According to a 2015 [[Pew Research Center]] study, within the next four decades, Christians will remain the [[Major religious groups#Largest religions|world's largest religion]]; and by 2050, the Christian population is expected to exceed 3 billion.<ref name=PewProjections>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/files/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf|title= The Future of World Religions: Population Growth Projections, 2010–2050}}</ref>{{rp|60}}
As a percentage of Christians, the [[Catholic Church]] and [[Orthodoxy]] (both [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern]] and [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental]]) are declining in parts of the world (though Catholicism is growing in Asia, in Africa, vibrant in Eastern Europe, etc.), while [[Protestants]] and other [[Christians]] are on the rise in the developing world.<ref name="pewforum1"/><ref>Johnstone, Patrick, [https://books.google.com/books?id=AVzFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 "The Future of the Global Church: History, Trends and Possibilities"], p. 100, fig 4.10 & 4.11</ref><ref>Hillerbrand, Hans J., [https://books.google.com/books?id=4tbFBQAAQBAJ&lpg=PT3311 "Encyclopedia of Protestantism: 4-volume Set"], p. 1815, "Observers carefully comparing all these figures in the total context will have observed the even more startling finding that for the first itime ever in the history of Protestantism, ''Wider Protestants'' will by 2050 have become almost exactly as numerous as Catholics – each with just over 1.5 billion followers, or 17 percent of the world, with Protestants growing considerably faster than Catholics each year."</ref> The so-called ''popular Protestantism''<ref group="note">A flexible term; defined as all forms of Protestantism with the notable exception of the historical denominations deriving directly from the Protestant Reformation.</ref> is one of the fastest growing religious categories in the world.<ref name="books.google.com">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ic5pyiIkTxAC&pg=PA16|title=Religion in Global Civil Society|first=Mark|last=Juergensmeyer|date=3 November 2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=16|isbn=9780198040699}}</ref><ref name="Barker">{{cite web|url=http://www.allacademic.com//meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/0/3/9/8/7/pages39879/p39879-1.php|title=Engendering Charismatic Economies: Pentecostalism, Global Political Economy, and the Crisis of Social Reproduction|last=Barker|first=Isabelle V.|year=2005|publisher=[[American Political Science Association]]|pages=2, 8 and footnote 14 on page 8|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217004703/http://citation.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/0/3/9/8/7/pages39879/p39879-1.php|archive-date=17 December 2013|accessdate=March 25, 2010}}</ref> Nevertheless, Catholicism will also continue to grow to 1.63 billion by 2050, according to Todd Johnson of the Center for the Study of Global Christianity. <ref>Todd M. Johnson, Gina A Zurlo, Albert W. Hickman, and Peter F. Grossing, "Christianity 2016: Latin America and Projecting Religions to 2050," INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSION RESEARCH, 2016, Vol. 40 (1) 22-29. </ref> Africa alone, by 2015, will be home to 230 million African Catholics. <ref>Barrett, 29.</ref>And if in 2018 the U.N. projects that Africa's population will reach 4.5 billion by 2100 (not 2 billion as predicted in 2004), Catholicism will indeed grow as will other religious groups.<ref>Ross Douthat, "Fear of a Black Continent," NEW YORK TIMES, Oct. 21, 2018, 9.</ref>
Christianity is the predominant religion in Europe, the [[Americas]] and [[Southern Africa]]. In Asia, it is the dominant religion in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Armenia]], [[East Timor]] and the [[Philippines]].<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/table?tocId=9394911 Encyclopædia Britannica] table of religions, by region. Retrieved November 2007. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080218163337/http://www.britannica.com/eb/table?tocId=9394911 |date=18 February 2008 }}</ref> However, it is declining in many areas including the [[Northern United States|Northern]] and [[Western United States]],<ref>{{cite web|author=ARIS 2008 Report: Part IA – Belonging |url=http://b27.cc.trincoll.edu/weblogs/AmericanReligionSurvey-ARIS/reports/p1a_belong.html |title=American Religious Identification Survey 2008 |publisher=B27.cc.trincoll.edu |date= |accessdate=19 November 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518163841/http://b27.cc.trincoll.edu/weblogs/AmericanReligionSurvey-ARIS/reports/p1a_belong.html |archivedate=18 May 2011}}</ref> Oceania (Australia and New Zealand), northern Europe (including Great Britain,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ekklesia.co.uk/news/uk/061223/christendom |title=New UK opinion poll shows continuing collapse of 'Christendom' |publisher=Ekklesia.co.uk |date=23 December 2006|accessdate=19 November 2010}}</ref> Scandinavia and other places), France, Germany, the Canadian provinces of [[Ontario]], [[British Columbia]] and [[Quebec]], and parts of Asia (especially the Middle East – due to the [[Christian emigration]],<ref>Barrett/Kurian.''World Christian Encyclopedia'', p. 139 (Britain), 281 (France), 299 (Germany).</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4499668.stm |title=Christians in the Middle East |publisher=BBC News |date=15 December 2005 |accessdate=19 November 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Katz |first=Gregory |url=http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/world/4425100.html |title=Is Christianity dying in the birthplace of Jesus? |publisher=Chron.com |date=25 December 2006 |accessdate=19 November 2010}}</ref> [[Christianity in South Korea|South Korea]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.omf.org/omf/uk/about_asia/countries/korea/south_korea_profile |title=Number of Christians among young Koreans decreases by 5% per year |publisher=Omf.org |date= |accessdate=19 November 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226073820/http://www.omf.org/omf/uk/about_asia/countries/korea/south_korea_profile |archivedate=26 February 2009 |df=dmy }}</ref> [[Taiwan]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://americanbuddhist.net/christianity-fading-taiwan |title=Christianity fading in Taiwan | American Buddhist Net |publisher=Americanbuddhist.net |date=10 November 2007 |accessdate=5 May 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090224112858/http://americanbuddhist.net/christianity-fading-taiwan |archivedate=24 February 2009 }}</ref> and [[Macau]]<ref>{{cite news|last=Greenlees |first=Donald |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/26/world/asia/26macao.html?_r=1&oref=slogin |title=A Gambling-Fueled Boom Adds to a Church's Bane |location=Macao |publisher=Nytimes.com |date=26 December 2007 |accessdate=30 June 2011}}</ref>).
The Christian population is not decreasing in Brazil, the [[Southern United States]]<ref name=ARIS2008>{{cite web|url=http://b27.cc.trincoll.edu/weblogs/AmericanReligionSurvey-ARIS/reports/ARIS_Report_2008.pdf |format=PDF |title=American Religious Identification Survey (ARIS) 2008 |author1=Barry A. Kosmin |author2=Ariela Keysar |year=2009 |publisher=Trinity College |location=Hartford, Connecticut, USA |accessdate=1 April 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090407053149/http://b27.cc.trincoll.edu/weblogs/AmericanReligionSurvey-ARIS/reports/ARIS_Report_2008.pdf |archivedate=7 April 2009 |df=dmy }}</ref> and the province of [[Alberta]], Canada,<ref name="census2001">{{cite web |url=http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/standard/themes/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?Temporal=2001&PID=55822&APATH=3&GID=431515&METH=1&PTYPE=55440&THEME=56&FOCUS=0&AID=0&PLACENAME=0&PROVINCE=0&SEARCH=0&GC=99&GK=NA&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=&FL=0&RL=0&FREE=0 |title=Religions in Canada—Census 2001 |publisher=2.statcan.ca |date=9 March 2010 |accessdate=19 November 2010}}</ref> but the percentage is decreasing. In countries such as Australia<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/PopularAreas?&collection=Census&period=2006&&navmapdisplayed=true&textversion=false |title=Australian 2006 census – Religion |publisher=Censusdata.abs.gov.au |date= |accessdate=19 November 2010}}</ref> and New Zealand,<ref name="2006table28">[http://www.stats.govt.nz/~/media/Statistics/Publications/Census/2006-reports/quickstats-subject/Culture-Identity/quickstats-about-culture-and-identity-tables.ashx Table 28, 2006 Census Data – QuickStats About Culture and Identity – Tables]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724200044/http://www.stats.govt.nz/~/media/Statistics/Publications/Census/2006-reports/quickstats-subject/Culture-Identity/quickstats-about-culture-and-identity-tables.ashx |date=24 July 2011 }}</ref> the Christian population are declining in both numbers and percentage.
Despite the declining numbers, Christianity remains the dominant religion in the [[Western World]], where 70% are Christians.<ref name="Global Christianity"/> A 2011 [[Pew Research Center]] survey found that 76.2% of [[Europe]]ans, 73.3% in [[Oceania]] and about 86.0% in the [[Americas]] (90.0% in [[Latin America]] and 77.4% in [[North America]]) identified themselves as Christians.<ref name="Global Christianity"/><ref>{{cite web|author=ANALYSIS |url=http://www.pewforum.org/Christian/Global-Christianity-europe.aspx |title=Europe |publisher=Pewforum.org |date=19 December 2011 |accessdate=17 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=ANALYSIS |url=http://www.pewforum.org/Christian/Global-Christianity-americas.aspx |title=Americas |publisher=Pewforum.org |date=19 December 2011 |accessdate=17 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=ANALYSIS |url=http://www.pewforum.org/global-religious-landscape-christians.aspx |title=Global religious landscape: Christians |publisher=Pewforum.org |date=19 December 2011 |accessdate=17 August 2012}}</ref> By 2010 about 157 countries and territories in the world had [[Christianity by country|Christian majorities]].<ref name="PewDec2012" />
However, there are many [[charismatic movements]] that have become well established over large parts of the world, especially Africa, Latin America and Asia.<ref>David Stoll, "Is Latin America Turning Protestant?" published Berkeley: University of California Press. 1990</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/nrms/penta.html|title=Pentecostalism|author=Jeff Hadden|year=1997|accessdate=24 September 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060427204250/http://religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/nrms/penta.html |archivedate=27 April 2006}}</ref><ref name=movedbythespirit >{{cite web|url= http://pewforum.org/events/?EventID=109|title=Moved by the Spirit: Pentecostal Power and Politics after 100 Years|author1=Pew Forum on Religion |author2=Public Life |date=24 April 2006|accessdate=24 September 2008}}</ref><ref name=britannica>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Pentecostalism |encyclopedia=Britannica Concise Encyclopedia |year=2007 |url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1B1-374862.html |accessdate=21 December 2008 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090112143456/http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1B1-374862.html |archivedate=12 January 2009 }}</ref><ref name=CTReview>{{cite web|url=http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2000/november13/36.107.html|title=The CT Review: Pie-in-the-Sky Now|author=Ed Gitre, Christianity Today Magazine|date=13 November 2000}}</ref> Since 1900, primarily due to conversion, Protestantism has spread rapidly in Africa, Asia, Oceania and Latin America.<ref name = "Encyclopedia of Protestantism">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bW3sXBjnokkC&pg=PR11|title=Encyclopedia of Protestantism|first=J. Gordon|last=Melton|date=1 January 2005|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-6983-5|page=11}}</ref> From 1960 to 2000, the global growth of the number of reported [[Evangelical Protestants]] grew three times the world's population rate, and twice that of [[Islam]].<ref>{{Cite book| title=Know the Truth: A Handbook of Christian Belief | last=Milne | first=Bruce | year=2010 | publisher=InterVarsity Press | page=332 |isbn=978-0-83082-576-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W_ttliPuhjQC}}</ref> St. Mary's University study estimated about 10.2 million [[Muslim]] [[convert to Christianity]] in 2015.<ref name="academia.edu"/> as well a significant numbers of Muslims converts to Christianity in Afghanistan,<ref name="state2009">{{cite web | author= USSD Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor| year=2009| title=International Religious Freedom Report 2009| url=https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127362.htm | accessdate=2010-03-06}}</ref> Albania,<ref name="academia.edu">{{cite journal|last1=Johnstone|first1=Patrick|last2=Miller|first2=Duane Alexander|title=Believers in Christ from a Muslim Background: A Global Census|journal=IJRR|date=2015|volume=11|issue=10|pages=1–19|url=https://www.academia.edu/16338087|accessdate=30 October 2015}}</ref> Azerbaijan<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.day.az/society/85160.html|title=5,000 Azerbaijanis adopted Christianity|publisher=Day.az|date=7 July 2007|language=Russian|accessdate=30 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://azeri.irib.ir/tehliller/item/148029-xristian-missioner-t%C9%99riq%C9%99tl%C9%99r-ar-da-aktivl%C9%99sir?tmpl=component&print=1|title=Christian Missionaries Becoming Active in Azerbaijan|publisher=Tehran Radio|date=19 June 2011|language=Azerbaijani|accessdate=12 August 2012}}</ref> Algeria,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecoi.net/local_link/256856/368809_en.html|title=Algeria: Situation of Christians, including the treatment of Christians by society and by the authorities; availability of state protection; the fire at Tafat church; whether there were convictions for proselytism (2010 – July 2013) [DZA104491.FE]|first=Immigration and Refugee Board of|last=Canada|date=17 July 2013|publisher=}}</ref><ref name="ChristianAction">[http://www.christianaction.org.za/articles./MuslimsTurnToChrist.htm Muslims Turn to Christ – ChristianAction]{{dead link|date=November 2010}}</ref> Belgium,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oneindia.com/international/in-europe-many-muslims-renounce-islam-embrace-christianity-report-1567395.html|title=In Europe, many Muslims renounce Islam, embrace Christianity: Report|publisher=}}</ref> France,<ref name="ChristianAction"/> Germany,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/iran-blog/2014/may/12/iran-converted-christians-sanctuary-germany-muslim|title='Our second mother': Iran's converted Christians find sanctuary in Germany|first=Liana|last=Aghajanian|date=12 May 2014|via=The Guardian}}</ref> Iran,<ref>{{cite web|author=Gary Lane |url=http://www.cbn.com/CBNnews/437006.aspx |title=House Churches Growing in Iran |publisher=Cbn.com |date= |accessdate=17 August 2012}}</ref> India,<ref name="ChristianAction"/> Indonesia,<ref>{{cite book |date=February 15, 2001 |editor1=David B. Barrett |editor2=George Thomas Kurian |editor3=Todd M. Johnson |title=World Christian Encyclopedia p.374|url= |location= |publisher=Oxford University Press USA |isbn=978-0195079630 }}</ref> Malaysia,<ref name="Musa">{{cite web |url=http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2011/10/22/focus/9749626&sec=focus |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111024141407/http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=%2F2011%2F10%2F22%2Ffocus%2F9749626&sec=focus |dead-url=yes |archive-date=24 October 2011 |title=What is Himpun about? |author1=AHMAD FAROUK MUSA |author2=MOHD RADZIQ JALALUDDIN |author3=AHMAD FUAD RAHMAT |author4=EDRY FAIZAL EDDY YUSUF |date=22 October 2011 |website= |publisher=The Star |accessdate=16 December 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Morocco,<ref name="ChristianAction"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.christianitytoday.com/gleanings/2013/may/christian-converts-in-morocco-fear-fatwa-calling-for-their.html|title=Christian Converts in Morocco Fear Fatwa Calling for Their Execution}}</ref> Russia,<ref name="ChristianAction"/> Netherlands,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.frieschdagblad.nl/index.asp?artID=50476|title=Friesch Dagblad}}</ref> Saudi Arabia,<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of religious freedom|last=Cookson|first=Catharine|year=2003|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-94181-5|page=207|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R0PrjC1Ar7gC&pg=PA207}}</ref> Tunisia,<ref name="academia.edu"/> Turkey,<ref name="ChristianAction"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://churchinchains.ie/node/743|title=TURKEY: Protestant church closed down – Church In Chains – Ireland :: An Irish voice for suffering, persecuted Christians Worldwide}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ekklesia.co.uk/node/14276|title=Ekklesia – Turkish Protestants still face 'long path' to religious freedom|date=8 March 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=khadijabibi |url=http://www.chowk.com/ilogs/74358/51514 |title=35,000 Muslims convert into Christianity each year in Turkey |publisher=Chowk.com |date=30 October 2009 |accessdate=19 November 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120924020548/http://www.chowk.com/ilogs/74358/51514 |archivedate=24 September 2012 }}</ref> Kazakhstan,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stat.kz/p_perepis/Documents/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%86%20%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2.rar |title=Нац состав.rar |accessdate=24 July 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723084232/http://www.stat.kz/p_perepis/Documents/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%86%20%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2.rar |archivedate=23 July 2011 }}</ref> Kyrgyzstan,<ref name="academia.edu"/> Kosovo,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.economist.com/node/12868180|title=Conversion rate|date=30 December 2008|via=The Economist}}</ref> United States,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncregister.com/daily-news/why-are-millions-of-muslims-becoming-christian/|title=Why Are Millions of Muslims Becoming Christian?}}</ref> and Central Asia.<ref>{{cite web|author=Jeni Mitchell |url=http://icsr.info/blog-item.php?id=111 |title=FREEradicals – Targeting Christians in Central Asia |publisher=Icsr.info |date= |accessdate=17 August 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224154546/http://icsr.info/blog-item.php?id=111 |archivedate=24 February 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.opendoorsusa.org/pray/prayer-updates/2011/December/Christianity-Is-Alive-in-Central-Asia |title=Despite Government Set-backs, Christianity Is Alive in Central Asia |publisher=Opendoorsusa.org |date=30 November 2011 |accessdate=17 August 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120110173826/http://www.opendoorsusa.org/pray/prayer-updates/2011/December/Christianity-Is-Alive-in-Central-Asia |archivedate=10 January 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> It is also reported that Christianity is popular among people of different backgrounds in India (mostly Hindus),<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4290843.stm |work=BBC News | first=Narayan | last=Bareth | title=State to bar religious conversion | date=23 February 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/keyword/religious-conversions/recent/5 |work=The Times of India |location=India | title=Religious Conversions}}</ref> and Malaysia,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.christianaggression.org/item_display.php?id=1116227550&type=news |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071123035716/http://www.christianaggression.org/item_display.php?type=NEWS&id=1116227550 |dead-url=yes |archive-date=23 November 2007 |title=160,000 Have Converted Out of Hinduism in Malaysia in 25 Years |publisher=Christianaggression.org |date=16 May 2005 |accessdate=19 November 2010 }}</ref> Mongolia,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mongolia-attractions.com/religions-in-mongolia.html |title=Religions in Mongolia |publisher=Mongolia-attractions.com |date= |accessdate=19 November 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513073925/https://www.mongolia-attractions.com/religions-in-mongolia.html |archivedate=13 May 2011 |df=dmy }}</ref> Nigeria,<ref name="Religious Demographic Profiles">[http://pewforum.org/world-affairs/countries/?countryID=150 Religious Demographic Profiles – Pew Forum] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100421200729/http://pewforum.org/world-affairs/countries/?countryID=150 |date=21 April 2010 }}</ref> Vietnam,<ref name="liberty">{{cite web|title=Annual Report on International Religious Freedom for 2005 – Vietnam |website=U.S. Department of State |date=30 June 2005 |url=http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rsd/rsddocview.html?tbl=RSDCOI&id=437c9cdd2&count=0 |accessdate=11 March 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061020211314/http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rsd/rsddocview.html?tbl=RSDCOI&id=437c9cdd2&count=0 |archivedate=20 October 2006}}</ref> Singapore,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://newnation.sg/2011/01/christianity-non-religious-register-biggest-growth-census-2010/ |title=Christianity, non-religious register biggest growth: Census 2010 |publisher=Newnation.sg |date=13 January 2011 |accessdate=17 August 2012}}</ref> Indonesia,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5gZ68H857ADsOp81TePJQmLhShESw |title=In Indonesia, Lunar New Year an old practice for young Christians |publisher=Webcitation.org |date= |accessdate=17 August 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/60y2wqSF7?url=http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5gZ68H857ADsOp81TePJQmLhShESw |archivedate=15 August 2011 |df=dmy }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/27/opinion/27iht-edbrazier.html?_r=1 |title=In Indonesia, the Chinese go to church |publisher=Nytimes.com |date=27 April 2006 |accessdate=17 August 2012}}</ref> China,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-12060445/Christianity-2010-a-vie-from.html |title=Christianity 2010: a view from the new Atlas of Global Christianity |publisher=Goliath.ecnext.com |date=1 January 2010 |accessdate=17 August 2012}}</ref> Japan,<ref name="christianpost.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.christianpost.com/news/more-people-claim-christian-faith-in-japan-1549/|title=More People Claim Christian Faith in Japan}}</ref> and South Korea.<ref>{{cite news|last=Landau |first=Christopher |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8322072.stm |title=Will South Korea become Christian? |publisher=BBC News |date=26 October 2009 |accessdate=17 August 2012}}</ref>
In most countries in the developed world, [[church attendance]] among people who continue to identify themselves as Christians has been falling over the last few decades.<ref>Putnam, ''Democracies in Flux: The Evolution of Social Capital in Contemporary Society'', p. 408.</ref> Some sources view this simply as part of a drift away from traditional membership institutions,<ref>McGrath, ''Christianity: An Introduction'', p. xvi.</ref> while others link it to signs of a decline in belief in the importance of religion in general.<ref>Peter Marber, ''Money Changes Everything: How Global Prosperity Is Reshaping Our Needs, Values and Lifestyles'', p. 99.</ref> Europe's Christian population, though in decline, still constitutes the largest geographical component of the religion.<ref>Philip Jenkins God's Continent, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007, p. 56</ref> According to data from the 2012 European Social Survey, around a third of [[Christianity in Europe|European Christians]] say they attend services once a month or more,<ref name="economist">{{cite web|url=https://www.economist.com/news/international/21684679-march-christianity-future-worlds-most-popular-religion-african|title=The future of the world's most popular religion is African|date=25 December 2015|via=The Economist}}</ref> Conversely about more than two-thirds of Latin American Christians and according to the [[World Values Survey]] about 90% of [[Christianity in Africa|African Christians]] (in [[Ghana]], [[Nigeria]], [[Rwanda]], [[South Africa]] and [[Zimbabwe]]) said they attended church regularly.<ref name="economist"/>
[[Christian state|Christianity]], in one form or another, is the sole [[state religion]] of the following nations: Argentina (Catholic),<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica-Argentina">{{cite web|url =http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/33657/Argentina| title = Argentina|publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate = 11 May 2008}}</ref> [[Tuvalu]] (Reformed), [[Tonga]] (Methodist), Norway (Lutheran),<ref name="abcnyheter">[http://www.abcnyheter.no/nyheter/080410/losere-band-men-fortsatt-statskirke Løsere bånd, men fortsatt statskirke] {{webarchive|url=https://www.webcitation.org/6DEb3MkkC?url=http://www.abcnyheter.no/nyheter/080410/losere-band-men-fortsatt-statskirke|date=27 December 2012}}, ABC Nyheter<!-- https://www.webcitation.org/6DEb3MkkC?url=http://www.abcnyheter.no/nyheter/080410/losere-band-men-fortsatt-statskirke --></ref><ref>[http://www.nrk.no/nyheter/norge/1.8076910 Staten skal ikke lenger ansette biskoper], NRK</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://fritanke.no/index.php?page=vis_nyhet&NyhetID=8840|title=Ingen avskaffelse: / Slik blir den nye statskirkeordningen|first=Human-Etisk|last=Forbund}}</ref> Costa Rica (Catholic),<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica-Costa Rica">{{cite web|url =http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/139528/Costa-Rica| title = Costa Rica|publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate = 11 May 2008}}</ref> Kingdom of Denmark (Lutheran),<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica-Denmark">{{cite web|url =http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/157748/Denmark| title = Denmark|publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate = 11 May 2008}}</ref> England (Anglican),<ref name="Centre for Citizenship-England">{{cite web|url=http://www.centreforcitizenship.org/church1.html |title=Church and State in Britain: The Church of privilege |publisher=Centre for Citizenship |accessdate=11 May 2008 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511204430/http://www.centreforcitizenship.org/church1.html |archivedate=11 May 2008 |df=dmy }}</ref> Georgia (Georgian Orthodox),<ref name="Beliefnet-Georgia">{{cite web|url =http://blog.beliefnet.com/stevenwaldman/2008/08/mccain-praises-georgia-for-ado.html| title = McCain Praises Georgia For Adopting Christianity As Official State Religion|publisher = BeliefNet|accessdate = 11 April 2009}}</ref> [[Greece]] (Greek Orthodox),<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica-El Salvador">{{cite web|url =http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/181798/El-Salvador| title = El Salvador|publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate = 11 May 2008}}</ref> Iceland (Lutheran),<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica-Iceland">{{cite web|url =http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/281235/Iceland|title = Iceland|publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate = 11 May 2008}}</ref> Liechtenstein (Catholic),<ref name="U.S. Department of State-Liechtenstein">{{cite web|url =https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2003/24418.htm|title = Liechtenstein|publisher = U.S. Department of State|accessdate = 11 May 2008}}</ref> Malta (Catholic),<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica-Malta">{{cite web|url =http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/360532/Malta|title = Malta|publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate = 11 May 2008}}</ref> Monaco (Catholic),<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica-Monaco">{{cite web|url =http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/388747/Monaco|title = Monaco|publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate = 11 May 2008}}</ref> and [[Vatican City]] (Catholic).<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica-Vatican City">{{cite web|url =http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/623972/Vatican-City|title = Vatican|publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate = 11 May 2008}}</ref>
There are numerous other countries, such as Cyprus, which although do not have an [[established church]], still give official recognition and support to a specific [[Christian denomination]].<ref name="U.S. Department of State-Cyprus">{{cite web|url =https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2003/27433.htm|title = Cyprus|publisher = U.S. Department of State|accessdate = 11 May 2008}}</ref>
<center>
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Demographics of major traditions within Christianity ([[Pew Research Center]], 2010 data)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/12/19/global-christianity-exec/|title=Global Christianity – A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population|date=19 December 2011}}</ref>
|-
! cyrus="col" | Tradition
! scope="col" | Followers
! scope="col" | % of the Christian population
! scope="col" | % of the world population
! scope="col" | Follower dynamics
! scope="col" | Dynamics in- and outside Christianity
|- style="background: yellow"
| [[Catholic Church]]
| 1,094,610,000
| 50.1
| 15.9
| {{increase}} Growing
| {{increase}} Growing
|- style="background: #B57EDC"
| [[Protestantism]]
| 800,640,000
| 36.7
| 11.6
| {{increase}} Growing
| {{increase}} Growing
|- style="background: #9F8170"
| Orthodoxy
| 260,380,000
| 11.9
| 3.8
| {{decrease}} Declining
| {{decrease}} Declining
|- style="background: cyan"
| Other Christianity
| 28,430,000
| 1.3
| 0.4
| {{increase}} Growing
| {{increase}} Growing
|-
! Christianity
! 2,184,060,000
! 100
! 31.7
! {{increase}} Growing
! {{nochange}} Stable
|}</center>
<br><div style="overflow:auto;">
[[File:Christianity percent population in each nation World Map Christian data by Pew Research.svg|upright=4.55|thumb|center|The global distribution of Christians: Countries colored a darker shade have a higher proportion of Christians.<ref>{{cite web|author=ANALYSIS |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/table-religious-composition-by-country-in-percentages/ |title=Table: Religious Composition by Country, in Percentages |publisher=Pewforum.org |date=19 December 2011 |accessdate=17 August 2012}}</ref>]]</div>
<br>
<gallery>
File:Christian world map.png|Countries with 50% or more Christians are colored purple while countries with 10% to 50% Christians are colored pink
File:Map of state religions.svg|Nations with Christianity as their [[state religion]] are in blue
File:Map of state religions (detailed).svg|Nations with Christianity as their [[state religion]] (detailed map; see legend for more)
File:Catholic population.svg|Distribution of Catholics
File:Countries by percentage of Protestants (2010).svg|Distribution of Protestants
File:Eastern Orthodoxy by country.png|Distribution of Eastern Orthodox
File:Oriental Orthodoxy by country.png|Distribution of Oriental Orthodox
File:Other Christians by country.png|Other Christians by number: black - more than 10 million; red - more than 1 million
</gallery>
==Denominations==
{{Further|List of Christian denominations|List of Christian denominations by number of members}}
{{Christian denomination tree}}
The four primary divisions of Christianity are the [[Catholic Church]], the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], [[Oriental Orthodoxy]], and [[Protestantism]].<ref name="Rhodes 2005"/>{{rp|14}}<ref name="North Virgina College—Four Sects">{{cite web|url = http://www.nvcc.edu/home/lshulman/Rel232/resource/Xiandivision.htm| title = Divisions of Christianity|publisher = North Virginia College|accessdate = 31 December 2007}}</ref> A broader distinction that is sometimes drawn is between [[Eastern Christianity]] and [[Western Christianity]], which has its origins in the [[East–West Schism]] (Great Schism) of the 11th century. However, there are other present<ref name="Religious Tolerance—Four Sects">{{cite web|url = http://www.religioustolerance.org/ldswho.htm| title = The LDS Restorationist movement, including Mormon denominations|publisher = Religious Tolerance|accessdate = 31 December 2007}}</ref> and historical<ref>{{cite book | first=Bart D.|last=Ehrman|authorlink=Bart D. Ehrman| title=Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew | publisher=[[Oxford University Press]], USA | year=2003 | isbn=978-0-19-514183-2|page=1}}</ref> Christian groups that do not fit neatly into one of these primary categories.
There is a diversity of [[doctrine]]s and [[Liturgy|liturgical]] practices among groups calling themselves Christian. These groups may vary [[ecclesiology|ecclesiologically]] in their views on a classification of [[Christian denomination]]s.<ref>[[Sydney E. Ahlstrom]], characterized [[denominationalism]] in America as "a virtual ecclesiology" that "first of all repudiates the insistences of the Catholic Church, the churches of the 'magisterial' Reformation, and of most sects that they alone are the true Church." ({{cite book |last=Ahlstrom |first=Sydney E. |last2=Hall |first2=David D. |year=2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kFF6a1viGcC&pg=PA381|title=A Religious History of the American People |edition=Revised|publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-10012-9|page=381}});
*{{cite book |last=Nash |first=Donald A.|url=https://www.thecra.org/files/WhyNotDenom.pdf|title=Why the Churches of Christ are Not a Denomination|accessdate=17 June 2014|pages=1–3 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5n7kJH3Yf?url=http://www.crownhillchurch.com/Why_the_Churches_of_Christ_Are_Not_A_Denomination.pdf |archivedate=28 January 2010 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy-all }};
*Wendell Winkler, [http://www.thebible.net/introchurch/ch4.html Christ's Church is not a Denomination];
*{{cite web |url=http://www.biblestudylessons.com/jesuslord/jeslord8-lesson.php |title=Jesus Is Lord Free Online Bible Study Course Lesson 8, II. How Did Modern Denominations Begin? |author=David E. Pratte |date=1999 |website=biblestudylessons.com |accessdate=17 June 2014 }}</ref> The [[Nicene Creed]] (325), however, is typically accepted as authoritative by most Christians, including the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and major Protestant, including Anglican denominations.<ref>{{cite web | title =Nicene Creed | website =Encyclopædia Britannica Online | publisher =Encyclopædia Britannica |year=2007 | url =http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9055702| accessdate =31 December 2007}}</ref>
By reason of [[Protestant ecclesiology]], ever since its emergence in the 16th century Protestantism comprises the widest diversity of groupings and practices. In addition to the [[Lutheran]] and [[Reformed]] (or Calvinist) branches of the Reformation, there is [[Anglicanism]] after the [[English Reformation]]. The [[Anabaptist]] tradition was largely ostracized by the other Protestant parties at the time, but has achieved a measure of affirmation in more recent history. [[Adventism|Adventist]], [[Baptist]], [[Methodist]], [[Pentecostal]] and [[List of Christian denominations#Protestantism|other Protestant]] confessions arose in the following centuries.
===Catholic Church===
{{Main|Catholic Church}}
[[File:Franciscus in 2015.jpg|thumb|[[Pope Francis]], the current leader of the Catholic Church]]
The Catholic Church consists of those [[particular Church]]es, headed by bishops, in communion with the [[Pope]], the Bishop of Rome, as its highest authority in matters of faith, morality and Church governance.<ref name="LumenG">[[Second Vatican Council]], ''[http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html Lumen Gentium] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140906031754/http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html |date=6 September 2014 }}''.</ref><ref name="SandSp1">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'', p. 1.</ref> Like [[Eastern Orthodox]]y, the Catholic Church, through [[apostolic succession]], traces its origins to the Christian community founded by Jesus Christ.<ref name="NatGeographic281">Hitchcock, ''Geography of Religion'', p. 281.</ref><ref name="Norman11">Norman, ''The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History'', p. 11, 14.</ref> Catholics maintain that the "[[Four Marks of the Church|one, holy, catholic and apostolic church]]" founded by Jesus [["Subsistit in" in Lumen Gentium|subsists fully]] in the Catholic Church, but also acknowledges other Christian churches and communities<ref name="LumenGentium">[[Second Vatican Council]], ''[http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html Lumen Gentium]'' {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140906031754/http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html |date=6 September 2014 }}, chapter 2, paragraph 15.</ref><ref>[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]], [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p123a9p3.htm#IV paragraph 865]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150812051820/http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p123a9p3.htm#IV |date=12 August 2015 }}</ref> and works towards [[ecumenism|reconciliation]] among all Christians.<ref name = "LumenGentium"/> The Catholic faith is detailed in the ''[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]''.<ref name="cat">Marthaler, ''Introducing the Catechism of the Catholic Church, Traditional Themes and Contemporary Issues'' (1994), preface.</ref><ref>{{cite web | last = John Paul II| first =Pope | title =Laetamur Magnopere | publisher =Vatican | year =1997 | url =http://www.usccb.org/catechism/text/laetamurmagnopere.htm | archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20080211121910/http://www.usccb.org/catechism/text/laetamurmagnopere.htm | archivedate =11 February 2008 | accessdate =9 March 2008 }}</ref>
The 2,834 [[Episcopal see|sees]]<ref>''[[Annuario Pontificio]]'' (2012), p. 1142.</ref> are grouped into [[Sui iuris#Catholic ecclesiastical use|24 particular autonomous Churches]] (the largest of which being the [[Latin Church]]), each with its own distinct traditions regarding the [[liturgy]] and the administering the [[Sacraments of the Catholic Church|sacraments]].<ref name="OneFaith71">Barry, ''One Faith, One Lord'' (2001), p. 71</ref> With more than 1.1 billion baptized members, the Catholic Church is the largest Christian [[Ecclesia (church)|church]] and represents over half of all Christians as well as one sixth of the [[world population|world's population]].<ref name=autogenerated1>[[Central Intelligence Agency]], ''[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html CIA World Factbook]'' (2007).</ref><ref name="Adherents">Adherents.com, [http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html ''Religions by Adherents'']</ref><ref>''Zenit.org'', "[http://www.zenit.org/article-18894?l=english Number of Catholics and Priests Rises] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080225194908/http://www.zenit.org/article-18894?l=english |date=25 February 2008 }}", 12 February 2007.</ref>
===Eastern Orthodox Church===
{{Main|Eastern Orthodox Church}}
[[File:Moscow July 2011-7a.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Cathedral of Christ the Saviour]] in [[Moscow]] is the tallest [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox Christian]] church in the world.]]
The Eastern Orthodox Church consists of those churches in communion with the [[Patriarch]]al Sees of the East, such as the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople]].<ref name="ODCC1199">Cross/Livingstone. ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'', p. 1199.</ref> Like the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church also traces its heritage to the foundation of Christianity through [[apostolic succession]] and has an [[Episcopal polity|episcopal]] structure, though the [[autocephaly|autonomy]] of its component parts is emphasized, and most of them are national churches.
A number of conflicts with Western Christianity over questions of doctrine and authority culminated in the [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]]. Eastern Orthodoxy is the second largest single denomination in Christianity, with an estimated 225–300 million adherents.<ref name="Global Christianity"/><ref name="Adherents"/><ref name=aboutWeb>{{cite web |last1=Fairchild |first1=Mary |title=Christianity:Basics:Eastern Orthodox Church Denomination |publisher=about.com |url=http://christianity.about.com/od/easternorthodoxy/p/orthodoxprofile.htm |accessdate=22 May 2014 |ref=none }}</ref>
===Oriental Orthodoxy===
{{Main|Oriental Orthodoxy}}
The [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox churches]] (also called "Old Oriental" churches) are those eastern churches that recognize the first three ecumenical councils—[[First Council of Nicaea|Nicaea]], [[First Council of Constantinople|Constantinople]] and [[First Council of Ephesus|Ephesus]]—but reject the dogmatic definitions of the [[Council of Chalcedon]] and instead espouse a [[Miaphysite]] [[christology]].
The Oriental Orthodox communion consists of six groups: [[Syriac Orthodox]], [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic Orthodox]], [[Ethiopian Orthodox]], [[Eritrean Orthodox]], [[Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church]] (India) and [[Armenian Apostolic]] churches.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wcc-coe.org/wcc/what/ecumenical/ooc-e.html |title=Oriental Orthodox Churches |publisher=Wcc-coe.org|accessdate=19 November 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100406014259/http://www.wcc-coe.org/wcc/what/ecumenical/ooc-e.html |archivedate=6 April 2010 }}</ref> These six churches, while being in communion with each other are completely independent hierarchically.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pluralism.org/affiliates/student/allen/Oriental-Orthodox/Home.html |title=An Introduction to the Oriental Orthodox Churches |publisher=Pluralism.org |date=15 March 2005 |accessdate=19 November 2010}}</ref> These churches are generally not in communion with [[Eastern Orthodox Churches]] with whom they are in dialogue for erecting a communion.<ref name="sor.cua.edu">{{cite web|author=OONS |url=http://sor.cua.edu/Ecumenism/20010317oomtg4.html |title=Syrian Orthodox Resources – Middle Eastern Oriental Orthodox Common Declaration |publisher=Sor.cua.edu|accessdate=19 November 2010}}</ref>
===Assyrian Church of the East===
[[File:Church of Saint John the Arab.jpg|thumb|A 6th-century [[Nestorian church]], St. John the Arab, in the [[Assyrian tribes|Assyrian village]] of [[Andac|Geramon]] in southeastern [[Turkey]].]]
{{Main|Assyrian Church of the East}}
The [[Assyrian Church of the East]], with an unbroken patriarchate established in the 17th century, is an independent [[Eastern Christian]] denomination which claims continuity from the [[Church of the East]] – in parallel to the Catholic patriarchate established in the 16th century that evolved into the [[Chaldean Catholic Church]], an [[Eastern Catholic]] church in [[full communion]] with the [[Pope]]. It is an [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern Christian]] [[Christian denomination|Church]] that follows the traditional [[christology]] and [[ecclesiology]] of the historical Church of the East. Largely [[Aniconism in Christianity|aniconic]] and not in [[communion (Christianity)|communion]] with any other church, it belongs to the eastern branch of [[Syriac Christianity]], and uses the [[East Syriac Rite]] in its [[liturgy]].<ref>{{Cite book|ref=harv|last=Baumer|first=Christoph|title=The Church of the East: An Illustrated History of Assyrian Christianity|year=2006|location=London-New York|publisher=Tauris|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SQ7ZAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>
Its main spoken language is [[Syriac language|Syriac]], a dialect of [[Eastern Aramaic]], and the majority of its adherents are ethnic [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]]. It is officially headquartered in the city of [[Erbil]] in northern [[Iraqi Kurdistan]], and its original area also spreads into south-eastern [[Turkey]] and north-western [[Iran]], corresponding to ancient [[Assyria]]. Its hierarchy is composed of [[metropolitan bishop]]s and [[diocesan bishop]]s, while lower clergy consists of [[priest]]s and [[deacon]]s, who serve in dioceses (eparchies) and parishes throughout the [[Middle East]], [[India]], [[North America]], [[Oceania]], and [[Europe]] (including the [[Caucasus]] and [[Russia]]).<ref>{{Cite book|ref=harv|last=Hunter|first=Erica C. D.|chapter=The Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East|editor-last=Leustean|editor-first=Lucian N.|title=Eastern Christianity and Politics in the Twenty-First Century|date=2014|location=London-New York|publisher=Routledge|pages=601–620|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zt2vAwAAQBAJ|isbn=9781317818663}}</ref>
The [[Ancient Church of the East]] distinguished itself from the [[Assyrian Church of the East]] in 1964. It is one of the [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] churches that claim continuity with the historical [[Patriarchate of Seleucia-Ctesiphon]] – the Church of the East, one of the oldest Christian churches in Mesopotamia.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cnewa.us/default.aspx?ID=1&pagetypeID=9&sitecode=HQ&pageno=1 |title=CNEWA: Ronald G. Roberson, C.S.P. - The Assyrian Church of the East |access-date=15 August 2018 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6BmOPqacA?url=http://www.cnewa.us/default.aspx?ID=1 |archive-date=29 October 2012 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
===Protestantism===
{{Main|Protestantism}}
{{Protestantism}}
In the 16th century, [[Martin Luther]], and subsequently [[Huldrych Zwingli]] and [[John Calvin]], inaugurated what has come to be called [[Protestantism]]. Luther's primary theological heirs are known as [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]]. Zwingli and Calvin's heirs are far broader denominationally, and are broadly referred to as the [[Reformed|Reformed tradition]].<ref name="McManners251">McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity''. pp. 251–59.</ref> The oldest Protestant groups separated from the Catholic Church in the [[Protestant Reformation]], often followed by further divisions.<ref name="McManners251"/>
In the 18th century, for example, [[Methodism]] grew out of [[Anglican]] minister [[John Wesley]]'s evangelical and [[Holiness Movement|revival movement]].<ref name="Methodist Central Hall Westminster—Methodism">{{cite web|url=http://www.methodist-central-hall.org.uk/history/WhatisMethodism.htm |title=About The Methodist Church |publisher=Methodist Central Hall Westminster |accessdate=31 December 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070121041402/http://www.methodist-central-hall.org.uk/history/WhatisMethodism.htm |archivedate=21 January 2007 }}</ref> Several [[Pentecostal]] and [[Nondenominational Christianity|non-denominational churches]], which emphasize the cleansing power of the [[Holy Spirit]], in turn grew out of Methodism.<ref name="FYW—Pentecostalism">{{cite web|url = http://www.godpreach.com/christianity-pentecostal-churches/|title = Christianity: Pentecostal Churches|publisher = GodPreach, Inc.|accessdate = 31 December 2007|deadurl = yes|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20150211234057/http://www.godpreach.com/christianity-pentecostal-churches/|archivedate = 11 February 2015|df = dmy-all}}</ref> Because Methodists, Pentecostals and other evangelicals stress "accepting Jesus as your personal Lord and Savior",<ref name="CUMC Accepting Christ">{{cite web|url=http://www.cambridgechristumc.com/statementofbelief.htm |title=Statement of Belief |publisher=Cambridge Christ United Methodist Church |accessdate=31 December 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928101604/http://www.cambridgechristumc.com/statementofbelief.htm |archivedate=28 September 2007 |df=dmy }}</ref> which comes from Wesley's emphasis of the [[Born again (Christianity)|New Birth]],<ref name="UMC GBGM-The New Birth">{{cite web|url=http://new.gbgm-umc.org/umhistory/wesley/sermons/45/ |title=The New Birth by John Wesley (Sermon 45) |publisher=The United Methodist Church GBGM |accessdate=31 December 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070913232442/http://new.gbgm-umc.org/umhistory/wesley/sermons/45/ |archivedate=13 September 2007 |df=dmy }}</ref> they often refer to themselves as being [[Born again Christianity|born-again]].<ref name="UMC GBGM-Grace">{{cite web|url=http://gbgm-umc.org/umw/wesley/walk.stm |title=God's Preparing, Accepting, and Sustaining Grace |publisher=The United Methodist Church GBGM |accessdate=31 December 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080109013416/http://gbgm-umc.org/UMW/Wesley/walk.stm |archivedate=9 January 2008 |df=dmy }}</ref><ref name="Warren Wilson College—Total Experience of the Spirit">{{cite web|url=http://www.warren-wilson.edu/~religion/newifo/religions/christianity/index/pentecostal/essay.shtml |title=Total Experience of the Spirit |publisher=Warren Wilson College |accessdate=31 December 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060903030820/http://www.warren-wilson.edu/~religion/newifo/religions/christianity/index/pentecostal/essay.shtml |archivedate=3 September 2006 |df=dmy }}</ref>
Estimates of the total number of Protestants are very uncertain, but it seems clear that Protestantism is the second largest major group of Christians after Catholicism in number of followers (although the Eastern Orthodox Church is larger than any single Protestant denomination).<ref name="Adherents" /> Often that number is put at more than 800 million, corresponding to nearly 40% of world's Christians.<ref name="pewforum1">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/files/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf |title=Pewforum: Christianity (2010) |format=PDF|accessdate=14 May 2014}}</ref> The majority of Protestants are members of just a handful of denominational families, i.e. [[Adventism|Adventists]], [[Anglicanism|Anglicans]], [[Baptists]], [[Calvinism|Reformed (Calvinists)]],<ref>This branch was first called Calvinism by Lutherans who opposed it, and many within the tradition would prefer to use the word ''Reformed''. It includes [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterians]] and [[Congregational church|Congregationalists]].</ref> [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]], [[Methodism|Methodists]] and [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostals]].<ref name="pewforum1"/> [[Nondenominational Christianity|Nondenominational]], [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]], [[Charismatic Movement|charismatic]], [[Neo-charismatic churches|neo-charismatic]], independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity.<ref>[http://www.oikoumene.org/en/church-families/evangelical-churches World Council of Churches: Evangelical churches]: "Evangelical churches have grown exponentially in the second half of the 20th century and continue to show great vitality, especially in the global South. This resurgence may in part be explained by the phenomenal growth of Pentecostalism and the emergence of the charismatic movement, which are closely associated with evangelicalism. However, there can be no doubt that the evangelical tradition "per se" has become one of the major components of world Christianity. Evangelicals also constitute sizable minorities in the traditional Protestant and Anglican churches. In regions like Africa and Latin America, the boundaries between "evangelical" and "mainline" are rapidly changing and giving way to new ecclesial realities."</ref>
A special grouping are the Anglican churches descended from the [[Church of England]] and organized in the [[Anglican Communion]]. Some Anglican churches consider themselves both Protestant and Catholic.<ref>Sykes/Booty/Knight. ''The Study of Anglicanism'', p. 219.</ref> Some Anglicans consider their church a [[Branch theory|branch of the "One Holy Catholic Church"]] alongside of the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, a concept rejected by the Catholic Church, some Eastern Orthodox, and many [[evangelical Anglican]]s themselves.<ref>Gregory Hallam, ''[http://www.orthodoxresearchinstitute.org/articles/ecumenical/hallam_orthodoxy_ecumenism.htm Orthodoxy and Ecumenism]''.</ref><ref>Gregory Mathewes-Green, "[http://www.westernorthodox.com/branch.html Whither the Branch Theory?]", ''Anglican Orthodox Pilgrim'' Vol. 2, No. 4. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120519104645/http://www.westernorthodox.com/branch.html |date=19 May 2012 }}</ref>
While the Anglican, Lutheran and the Reformed branches of Protestantism originated in the [[Magisterial Reformation]], other groups such as the [[Anabaptists]], who often do not consider themselves to be Protestant, originated in the [[Radical Reformation]], and are distinguished by their rejection of infant baptism; they believe in baptism only of adult believers — [[credobaptism]] (Anabaptists include the [[Amish]], [[Apostolic Christian Church|Apostolic]], [[Bruderhof Communities|Bruderhof]], [[Mennonites]], [[Hutterites]] and [[Schwarzenau Brethren]]/[[German Baptist]] groups.)<ref name="BenedettoDuke2008">{{cite book|last1=Benedetto|first1=Robert|last2=Duke|first2=James O.|title=The New Westminster Dictionary of Church History|year=2008|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=9780664224165|page=22}}</ref><ref name="Littell2000">{{cite book|last=Littell|first=Franklin H.|title=The Anabaptist View of the Church|year=2000|publisher=The Baptist Standard Bearer, Inc.|language=English|isbn=9781579788360|page=79|quote=In reviewing the records, the reader is struck with the Anabaptists' acute consciousness of separation from the "fallen" church — in which they included the Reformers as well as the Roman institution. Some writers have therefore concluded that Anabaptism is not merely a variant form of Protestantism, but rather an ideology and practice quite different in kind from those of both Rome and the Reformers.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://mennoniteusa.org/who-we-are/|title=Who We Are: A Quick Visual Guide|year=2018|publisher=Mennonite Church USA|language=English|accessdate=26 April 2018|quote=Anabaptists: We are neither Catholic nor Protestant, but we share ties to those streams of Christianity. We cooperate as a sign of our unity in Christ and in ways that extend the reign of God’s Kingdom on earth. We are known as “Anabaptists” (not anti-Baptist) — meaning “rebaptizers.”}}</ref>
Some groups of individuals who hold basic Protestant tenets identify themselves simply as "Christians" or "[[born-again]] Christians". They typically distance themselves from the [[confessionalism (religion)|confessionalism]] and [[creed]]alism of other Christian communities<ref>Confessionalism is a term employed by historians to refer to "the creation of fixed identities and systems of beliefs for separate churches which had previously been more fluid in their self-understanding, and which had not begun by seeking separate identities for themselves—they had wanted to be truly Catholic and reformed." (MacCulloch, ''The Reformation: A History'', p. xxiv.)</ref> by calling themselves "[[Non-denominational Christianity|non-denominational]]" or "[[evangelical]]". Often founded by individual pastors, they have little affiliation with historic denominations.<ref name="Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life / U.S. Religious Landscape Survey">{{cite web|url =http://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report2religious-landscape-study-appendix3.pdf |title = Classification of Protestant Denominations|publisher = Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life / U.S. Religious Landscape Survey|accessdate = 27 September 2009}}</ref>
[[File:Protestant branches.svg|thumb|upright=2.95|left|Historical chart of the main Protestant branches]]
[[File:Interdenominational movements & other Protestant developments.svg|thumb|upright=2.95|right|Links between interdenominational movements and other developments within Protestantism]]
{{clear}}
===Restorationism===
{{Main|Restorationism}}
[[File:Priesthood03080u.jpg|upright=0.8|thumb|right|A 19th-century drawing of [[Joseph Smith]] and [[Oliver Cowdery]] receiving the [[Aaronic priesthood (Latter Day Saints)|Aaronic priesthood]] from [[John the Baptist]]. [[Latter Day Saint movement|Latter Day Saints]] believe that the [[Priest#Christianity|Priesthood]] ceased to exist after the death of the [[Apostle (Christian)|Apostles]] and therefore needed to be [[Restoration (Latter Day Saints)|restored]].]]
The [[Second Great Awakening]], a period of religious revival that occurred in the United States during the early 1800s, saw the development of a number of unrelated churches. They generally saw themselves as [[Restorationism|restoring]] the original church of Jesus Christ rather than reforming one of the existing churches.<ref>McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', p. 91f.</ref> A common belief held by Restorationists was that the other divisions of Christianity had introduced doctrinal defects into Christianity, which was known as the [[Great Apostasy]].<ref name="Religious Tolerance—Restorationism">{{cite web|url = http://www.religioustolerance.org/chrrest.htm| title = The Restorationist Movements|publisher = Religious Tolerance|accessdate = 31 December 2007}}</ref> In Asia, [[Iglesia ni Cristo]] is a known restorationist religion that was established during the early 1900s.
Some of the churches originating during this period are historically connected to early 19th-century camp meetings in the Midwest and Upstate New York. One of the largest churches produced from the movement is [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.mormonnewsroom.org/facts-and-statistics|title=LDS Statistics and Church Facts {{!}} Total Church Membership|work=www.mormonnewsroom.org|access-date=2018-04-27|language=en}}</ref> American [[Millennialism]] and [[Adventism]], which arose from Evangelical Protestantism, influenced the [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] movement and, as a reaction specifically to [[William Miller (preacher)|William Miller]], the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]]. Others, including the [[Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)]], [[Evangelical Christian Church in Canada]],<ref>Sydney E. Ahlstrom, ''A Religious History of the American People'' (2004)</ref><ref>Melton's Encyclopedia of American Religions (2009)</ref> [[Churches of Christ]], and the [[Christian churches and churches of Christ]], have their roots in the contemporaneous Stone-Campbell [[Restoration Movement]], which was centered in Kentucky and Tennessee. Other groups originating in this time period include the [[Christadelphians]] and the previously mentioned [[Latter Day Saint movement]]. While the churches originating in the Second Great Awakening have some superficial similarities, their doctrine and practices vary significantly.
===Other===
Various smaller [[Independent Catholic]] communities, such as the [[Old Catholic Church]], include the word ''[[Catholic (term)|Catholic]]'' in their title, and arguably have more or less liturgical practices in common with the [[Catholic Church]], but are no longer in [[full communion]] with the [[Holy See]].
[[Spiritual Christians]], such as the [[Doukhobor]] and [[Molokan]], broke from the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] and maintain close association with Mennonites and [[Quakers]] due to similar religious practices; all of these groups are furthermore collectively considered to be [[peace churches]] due to their belief in [[Christian pacifism|pacifism]].<ref name="Fahlbusch2008">{{cite book|last=Fahlbusch|first=Erwin|title=The Encyclodedia of Christianity|date=14 February 2008|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|language=English |isbn=9780802824172|page=208}}</ref><ref name="FlemingRowan2004">{{cite book|last1=Fleming|first1=John A.|last2=Rowan|first2=Michael J.|last3=Chambers|first3=James Albert|title=Folk Furniture of Canada's Doukhobors, Hutterites, Mennonites and Ukrainians|year=2004|publisher=University of Alberta|language=English |isbn=9780888644183|page=4|quote=The English Quakers, who had made contact with the Doukhobors earlier, as well as the Philadelphia Society of Friends, also determined to help with their emigration from Russia to some other country--the only action which seemed possible.}}</ref>
[[Messianic Judaism]] (or Messianic Movement) is the name of a Christian movement comprising a number of streams, whose members may consider themselves Jewish. The movement originated in the 1960s and 1970s, and it blends elements of religious Jewish practice with evangelical Christianity. Messianic Judaism affirms Christian creeds such as the messiahship and divinity of "Yeshua" (the Hebrew name of Jesus) and the Triune Nature of God, while also adhering to some Jewish dietary laws and customs.<ref name=Ariel2006p208>{{Cite book
|last = Ariel
|first = Yaakov<!--NOT the Yaakov Ariel with a Wikipedia entry-->
|editor1-last=Gallagher
|editor1-first=Eugene V.
|editor2-last=Ashcraft
|editor2-first=W. Michael
|title= Jewish and Christian Traditions
|accessdate= September 9, 2015
|series= Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America
|volume= 2
|year= 2006
|publisher= [[Greenwood Publishing Group]]
|location= [[Westport, Connecticut|Westport, Conn]]
|isbn= 978-0-275-98714-5
|oclc= 315689134
|page= 208
|chapter= Judaism and Christianity Unite! The Unique Culture of Messianic Judaism
|chapterurl= https://books.google.com/books?id=oZiScvbS6-cC&pg=RA1-PA208
|quote = For example, Messianic Jews, without exception, believe that the way to eternal life is through the acceptance of Jesus as one's personal savior and that no obedience to the Jewish law or "works" is necessary in order to obtain that goal.…Remarkably, it has been exactly this adherence to the basic Christian evangelical faith that has allowed Messianic Jews to adopt and promote Jewish rites and customs. They are Christians in good standing and can retain whatever cultural attributes and rites they choose.
|lccn = 2006022954}}
</ref>
[[Esoteric Christianity|Esoteric Christians]] regard Christianity as a [[Western esotericism|mystery religion]],<ref>Western Esotericism and the Science of Religion: Selected Papers Presented at the 17th Congress</ref><ref name="Besant 2001">{{cite book | last = Besant | first = Annie | title = Esoteric Christianity or the Lesser Mysteries | publisher = Adamant Media Corporation | location = City | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-1-4021-0029-1 }}</ref> and profess the existence and possession of certain [[Esotericism|esoteric]] doctrines or practices,<ref>From the Greek ἐσωτερικός (esôterikos, "inner"). The term [[esotericism]] itself was coined in the 17th century. (Oxford English Dictionary Compact Edition, Volume 1, Oxford University Press, 1971, p. 894.)</ref><ref>Wouter J. Hanegraaff, Antoine Faivre, [[Roelof van den Broek]], Jean-Pierre Brach, Dictionary of Gnosis & Western Esotericism, Brill 2005.</ref> hidden from the public but accessible only to a narrow circle of "enlightened", "initiated", or highly educated people.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.webster.com/dictionary/esotericism |title=Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary: esotericism |publisher=Webster.com |date=13 August 2010 |accessdate=19 November 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.webster.com/dictionary/esoteric |title=Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary: esoteric |publisher=Webster.com|accessdate=19 November 2010}}</ref> Some of the esoteric Christian institutions include the [[Rosicrucian Fellowship]], the [[Anthroposophical Society]] and [[Martinism]].
==Culture==
{{Main|Christian culture|Role of Christianity in civilization}}
{{Further|Protestant culture|Cultural Christian|Christian influences in Islam}}
[[File:Collage-Christian-culture.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Set of pictures showcasing Christian culture and famous Christian leaders]]
[[Western culture]], throughout most of its history, has been nearly equivalent to [[Christian culture]], and a large portion of the population of the Western hemisphere can be described as cultural Christians. The notion of "[[Europe]]" and the "[[Western World]]" has been intimately connected with the concept of "[[Christendom|Christianity and Christendom]]" many even attribute Christianity for being the link that created a unified [[European identity]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Dawson|first=Christopher|title=Crisis in Western Education|year=1961|isbn=9780813216836|edition=reprint|author2=Glenn Olsen|page=108}}</ref>
Though Western culture contained several polytheistic religions during its early years under the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Roman Empire|Roman empires]], as the centralized Roman power waned, the dominance of the Catholic Church was the only consistent force in Europe.<ref name="autogenerated1994">{{cite book|last=Koch|first=Carl|title=The Catholic Church: Journey, Wisdom, and Mission|year=1994|publisher=St. Mary's Press|location=Early Middle Ages|isbn=978-0-88489-298-4}}</ref> Until the [[Age of Enlightenment]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Koch|first=Carl|title=The Catholic Church: Journey, Wisdom, and Mission|year=1994|publisher=St. Mary's Press|location=The Age of Enlightenment|isbn=978-0-88489-298-4}}</ref> [[Christian culture]] guided the course of [[philosophy]], [[literature]], [[art]], [[music]] and [[science]].<ref name="autogenerated1994"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Dawson|first=Christopher|title=Crisis in Western Education|year=1961|isbn=978-0-8132-1683-6|edition=reprint|first2=Glenn |last2=Olsen}}</ref> Christian disciplines of the respective arts have subsequently developed into [[Christian philosophy]], [[Christian art]], [[Christian music]], [[Christian literature]] etc.
Christianity has had a significant impact on [[education]] as the church created the bases of the Western system of education,<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/115240/Christianity/67592/Forms-of-Christian-education Encyclopædia Britannica] Forms of Christian education</ref> and was the sponsor of founding [[Medieval university|universities]] in the [[Western world]]; as the [[university]] is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the [[History of Christianity|Medieval Christian]] setting.<ref name="Rüegg, Walter 1992, pp. XIX"/><ref name=verger1999 /> Historically, Christianity has often been a patron of [[science]] and [[medicine]]. It has been prolific in the foundation of [[schools]], [[universities]] and [[hospitals]], and many [[List of Catholic cleric-scientists|Catholic clergy]];<ref name="Hough p68">{{citation|title=Richter's Scale: Measure of an Earthquake, Measure of a Man|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rvmDeAxEiO8C&pg=PA68|first=Susan Elizabeth|last=Hough|authorlink=Susan Hough|year=2007|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|isbn=978-0-691-12807-8|page=68}}</ref> [[List of Jesuit scientists|Jesuits]] in particular,{{Sfn|Woods|2005|p=109}}<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/302999/Jesuit Encyclopædia Britannica] Jesuit</ref> have been active in the sciences throughout history and have made significant contributions to the [[Christian attitudes towards science|development of science]].<ref>Wallace, William A. (1984). ''Prelude, Galileo and his Sources. The Heritage of the Collegio Romano in Galileo's Science''. N.J.: Princeton University Press.</ref> [[Protestantism]] also has had an important influence on science. According to the [[Merton Thesis]], there was a positive [[correlation]] between the rise of English [[Puritanism]] and German [[Pietism]] on the one hand and early [[experimental science]] on the other.<ref name=sztompka2003>Sztompka, 2003</ref> The Civilizing influence of Christianity includes [[social welfare]],<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/115240/Christianity/67594/Church-and-social-welfare Encyclopædia Britannica] Church and social welfare</ref> founding [[hospitals]],<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/115240/Christianity/67597/Care-for-the-sick Encyclopædia Britannica] Care for the sick</ref> [[economics]] (as the [[Protestant work ethic]]),<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/115240/Christianity/67599/Property-poverty-and-the-poor Encyclopædia Britannica] Property, poverty, and the poor,</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Weber|first=Max|title=The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism|year=1905}}</ref> [[politics]],<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/115240/Christianity/67577/Church-and-state Encyclopædia Britannica] Church and state</ref> [[architecture]],<ref name= BF>Sir [[Banister Fletcher]], ''History of Architecture on the Comparative Method''.</ref> [[literature]],<ref>Buringh, Eltjo; van Zanden, Jan Luiten: "Charting the 'Rise of the West': Manuscripts and Printed Books in Europe, A Long-Term Perspective from the Sixth through Eighteenth Centuries", ''The Journal of Economic History'', Vol. 69, No. 2 (2009), pp. 409–445 (416, table 1)</ref> [[Ablution in Christianity|personal hygiene]],<ref>{{cite book|author=Eveleigh, Bogs|title=Baths and Basins: The Story of Domestic Sanitation|publisher=Stroud, England: Sutton|year=2002}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Henry Gariepy|title=Christianity in Action: The History of the International Salvation Army|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vcdEs3EAAkUC|year=2009|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=978-0-8028-4841-3|page=16}}</ref> and [[family]] life.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/115240/Christianity/67603/The-tendency-to-spiritualize-and-individualize-marriage Encyclopædia Britannica] The tendency to spiritualize and individualize marriage</ref>
[[Eastern Christians]] (particularly [[Nestorianism|Nestorian]] [[Christians]]) contributed to the Arab [[Islamic Golden Age|Islamic Civilization]] during the reign of the [[Ummayads|Ummayad]] and the [[Abbasids|Abbasid]] by translating works of [[Greek philosophers]] to [[Syriac language|Syriac]] and afterwards to [[Arabic language|Arabic]].<ref>Hill, Donald. ''Islamic Science and Engineering''. 1993. Edinburgh Univ. Press. {{ISBN|0-7486-0455-3}}, p.4</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Legend of the Middle Ages|author=Brague, Rémi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c8YjEkLPXNYC|isbn=978-0-226-07080-3|page=164|date=15 April 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Kitty Ferguson|title=Pythagoras: His Lives and the Legacy of a Rational Universe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=trM7NJz011oC&pg=PT100|year=2011|publisher=Icon Books Limited|isbn=978-1-84831-250-0|page=100|quote=It was in the Near and Middle East and North Africa that the old traditions of teaching and learning continued, and where Christian scholars were carefully preserving ancient texts and knowledge of the ancient Greek language}}</ref> They also excelled in [[philosophy]], [[science]], [[theology]] and [[medicine]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Kaser|first=Karl|title=The Balkans and the Near East: Introduction to a Shared History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j3i8muwLf8AC&pg=PA137|year=2011|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|isbn=978-3-643-50190-5|page=135}}</ref><ref>Rémi Brague, [http://www.christiansofiraq.com/assyriancontributionstotheislamiccivilization.htm Assyrians contributions to the Islamic civilization]</ref><ref>Britannica, [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/409819/Nestorian Nestorian]</ref> And many scholars of the [[House of Wisdom]] were of Christian background.<ref>Hyman and Walsh ''Philosophy in the Middle Ages'' Indianapolis, 1973, p. 204' Meri, Josef W. and Jere L. Bacharach, Editors, ''Medieval Islamic Civilization'' Vol.1, A-K, Index, 2006, p. 304.</ref>
[[Lists of Christians|Christians]] have made a myriad of contributions to [[Progress (history)|human progress]] in a broad and diverse range of fields,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adherents.com/adh_influ.html|title=Religion of History's 100 Most Influential People}}</ref> including [[Christian philosophy|philosophy]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adherents.com/adh_phil.html|title=Religion of Great Philosophers}}</ref> [[List of Christians in science and technology|science and technology]],<ref name="Hough p68"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rae.org/influsci.html|title=Christian Influences In The Sciences<!-- Bot generated title -->|website=rae.org|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924084347/http://www.rae.org/influsci.html|archivedate=24 September 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://creationsafaris.com/wgcs_1.htm|title=World's Greatest Creation Scientists from Y1K to Y2K|website=creationsafaris.com|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115053801/http://www.creationsafaris.com/wgcs_1.htm|archivedate=15 January 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adherents.com/people/100_scientists.html|title=100 Scientists Who Shaped World History}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adherents.com/people/100_Nobel.html|title=50 Nobel Laureates and Other Great Scientists Who Believe in God}} Many well-known historical figures who influenced Western science considered themselves Christian such as [[Nicolaus Copernicus]], [[Galileo Galilei]], [[Johannes Kepler]], [[Isaac Newton]], [[Robert Boyle]], [[Alessandro Volta]], [[Michael Faraday]], [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin]] and [[James Clerk Maxwell]].</ref> [[List of Catholic Church artists|fine arts and architecture]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adherents.com/people/adh_art.html|title=Religious Affiliation of the World's Greatest Artists}}</ref> [[politics]], [[List of Catholic authors|literatures]], [[Christian Music|music]],<ref name="Hall100">Hall, p. 100.</ref> and [[business]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adherents.com/people/100_business.html|title=Wealthy 100 and the 100 Most Influential in Business}}</ref> According to ''100 Years of Nobel Prizes'' a review of Nobel prizes award between 1901 and 2000 reveals that (65.4%) of [[Nobel Prizes]] Laureates, [[List of Christian Nobel laureates|have identified Christianity]] in its various forms as their religious preference.<ref name="Nobel Prize">Baruch A. Shalev, ''100 Years of Nobel Prizes'' (2003), Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, p.57: between 1901 and 2000 reveals that 654 Laureates belong to 28 different religions. Most (65.4%) have identified Christianity in its various forms as their religious preference. {{ISBN|978-0935047370}}</ref>
''[[Postchristianity]]''<ref>G.C. Oosthuizen. ''Postchristianity in Africa''. C Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd (31 December 1968). {{ISBN|0-903983-05-2}}</ref> is the term for the decline of Christianity, particularly [[Christianity in Europe|in Europe]], [[Religion in Canada|Canada]], [[Christianity in Australia|Australia]] and to a minor degree the [[Southern Cone]], in the 20th and 21st centuries, considered in terms of [[postmodernism]]. It refers to the loss of Christianity's monopoly on [[values]] and [[world view]] in historically Christian societies.
[[Cultural Christian]]s are secular people with a Christian heritage who may not believe in the religious claims of Christianity, but who retain an affinity for the [[Christian pop culture|popular culture]], art, [[Christian music|music]] and so on related to it. Another frequent application of the term is to distinguish political groups in areas of mixed religious backgrounds.
==Ecumenism==
{{Main|Ecumenism}}
[[File:Taizé prayer.JPG|thumb|left|Ecumenical worship service at the [[monastery]] of [[Taizé]] in France]]
Christian groups and denominations have long expressed ideals of being reconciled, and in the 20th century, Christian [[ecumenism]] advanced in two ways.<ref name="McManners581">McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', pp. 581–84.</ref> One way was greater cooperation between groups, such as the [[World Evangelical Alliance]] founded in 1846 in London or the [[Edinburgh Missionary Conference]] of Protestants in 1910, the Justice, Peace and Creation Commission of the [[World Council of Churches]] founded in 1948 by Protestant and Orthodox churches, and similar national councils like the [[National Council of Churches in Australia]] which includes Catholics.<ref name="McManners581"/>
The other way was institutional union with [[United and uniting churches]], a practice that can be traced back to unions between Lutherans and Calvinists in early 19th-century Germany. Congregationalist, Methodist and Presbyterian churches united in 1925 to form the [[United Church of Canada]],<ref>McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity''. p. 413f.</ref> and in 1977 to form the [[Uniting Church in Australia]]. The [[Church of South India]] was formed in 1947 by the union of Anglican, Baptist, Methodist, Congregationalist and Presbyterian churches.<ref>McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', p. 498.</ref>
The ecumenical, [[monasticism|monastic]] [[Taizé Community]] is notable for being composed of more than one hundred [[monk|brothers]] from Protestant and Catholic traditions.<ref name="taize">{{cite book|title=The Oxford companion to Christian thought|date=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-860024-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ognCKztR8a4C&pg=PA694|page=694}}</ref> The community emphasizes the reconciliation of all denominations and its main church, located in [[Taizé, Saône-et-Loire]], France, is named the "Church of Reconciliation".<ref name="taize" /> The community is internationally known, attracting over 100,000 young pilgrims annually.<ref>Oxford, "Encyclopedia Of Christianity, pg. 307.</ref>
Steps towards reconciliation on a global level were taken in 1965 by the Catholic and Orthodox churches mutually revoking the excommunications that marked their [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]] in 1054;<ref>McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', p. 373.</ref> the [[Anglican Catholic International Commission]] (ARCIC) working towards full communion between those churches since 1970;<ref>McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', p. 583.</ref> and some [[Lutheran World Federation|Lutheran]] and Catholic churches signing the [[Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification]] in 1999 to address conflicts at the root of the Protestant Reformation. In 2006, the [[World Methodist Council]], representing all Methodist denominations, adopted the declaration.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lutheranworld.org/What_We_Do/OEA/Methodist-Statement-2006-EN.pdf |title=Methodist Statement |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=19 November 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100116215437/http://www.lutheranworld.org/What_We_Do/OEA/Methodist-Statement-2006-EN.pdf |archivedate=16 January 2010 }}</ref>
== Criticism, persecution, and apologetics ==
{{Main|Christian apologetics|Criticism of Christianity|Persecution of Christians}}
[[File:SummaTheologiae.jpg|upright=0.9|thumb|right|A copy of the ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', a famous Christian apologetic work]]
Criticism of Christianity and Christians goes back to the [[Apostolic Age]], with the New Testament recording friction between the followers of Jesus and the [[Pharisees]] and [[scribes]] (e.g. {{Bibleref||Matthew|15:1–20|NIV}} and {{Bibleref||Mark|7:1–23|NIV}}).<ref>''International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E-J'' by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1982 {{ISBN|0-8028-3782-4}} page 175</ref> In the 2nd century, Christianity was criticized by the Jews on various grounds, e.g. that the prophecies of the Hebrew Bible could not have been fulfilled by Jesus, given that he did not have a successful life.<ref>''Jews and Christians: The Parting of the Ways, A.D. 70 to 135'' by James D. G. Dunn 1999 {{ISBN|0-8028-4498-7}} pages 112–113</ref> Additionally a sacrifice to remove sins in advance, for everyone or as a human being, did not fit to the Jewish sacrifice ritual, furthermore [[God in Judaism|God]] is said to judge people on their deeds instead of their beliefs.<ref>Asher Norman ''Twenty-six Reasons why Jews Don't Believe in Jesus'' Feldheim Publishers 2007 {{ISBN|978-0-977-19370-7}} page 11</ref><ref>Keith Akers The Lost Religion of Jesus: Simple Living and Nonviolence in Early Christianity'' Lantern Books 2000 {{ISBN|978-1-930-05126-3}} page 103</ref> One of the first comprehensive attacks on Christianity came from the Greek philosopher [[Celsus]], who wrote ''[[The True Word]]'', a polemic criticizing Christians as being unprofitable members of society.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ferguson|first1=Everett|title=Backgrounds of Early Christianity|date=1993|publisher=William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company|location=Grand Rapids, Michigan|isbn=978-0-8028-0669-7|pages=562–564|edition=second}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Thomas|first=Stephen|date=2004|chapter=Celsus|title=The Westminster Handbook to Origen|location=Louisville, Kentucky|editor-last=McGuckin|editor-first=John Anthony|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=978-0-664-22472-1|pages=72–73|ref=harv}}</ref><ref name="Olson1999"/> In response, the church father [[Origen]] published his treatise ''[[Contra Celsum]]'', or ''Against Celsus'', a seminal work of Christian apologetics, which systematically addressed Celsus's criticisms and helped bring Christianity a level of academic respectability.<ref>{{cite book|last=McGuckin|first=John Anthony|date=2004|chapter=The Scholarly Works of Origen|title=The Westminster Handbook to Origen|url=https://books.google.com/?id=riEdrWEDFq0C&pg=PA13&dq=Origen+ordination#v=onepage&q=Origen%20ordination&f=false|location=Louisville, Kentucky|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=978-0-664-22472-1|pages=32–34|ref=harv}}</ref><ref name="Olson1999">{{citation|last=Olson|first=Roger E.|date=1999|title=The Story of Christian Theology: Twenty Centuries of Tradition & Reform|url=https://books.google.com/?id=zexBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA100|location=Downers Grove, Illinois|publisher=InterVarsity Press|isbn=978-0-8308-1505-0|page=101|ref=harv}}</ref>
By the 3rd century, criticism of Christianity had mounted, partly as a defense against it. Wild rumors about Christians were widely circulated, claiming that they were [[atheism|atheists]] and that, as part of their rituals, they devoured human infants and engaged in incestuous orgies.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ferguson|first1=Everett|title=Backgrounds of Early Christianity|date=1993|publisher=William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company|location=Grand Rapids, Michigan|isbn=978-0-8028-0669-7|pages=556–561|edition=second}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sherwin-White|first1=A. N.|title=Why Were the Early Christians Persecuted? -- An Amendment|journal=Past and Present|volume=27|date=April 1964|issue=27|pages=23–27|jstor=649759|doi=10.1093/past/27.1.23}}</ref> The [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonist]] philosopher [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]] wrote the fifteen-volume ''Adversus Christianos'' as a comprehensive attack on Christianity, in part building on the teachings of [[Plotinus]].<ref>''The Encyclopedia of Christian Literature, Volume 1'' by George Thomas Kurian and James Smith 2010 {{ISBN|0-8108-6987-X}} page 527</ref><ref>''Apologetic Discourse and the Scribal Tradition'' by Wayne Campbell Kannaday 2005 {{ISBN|90-04-13085-3}} pages 32–33</ref>
By the 12th century, the [[Mishneh Torah]] (i.e., [[Rabbi]] [[Moses Maimonides]]) was criticizing Christianity on the grounds of idol worship, in that Christians attributed divinity to Jesus who had a physical body.<ref>''A Dictionary Of Jewish-Christian Relations'' by Edward Kessler, Neil Wenborn 2005 {{ISBN|0-521-82692-6}} page 168</ref> In the 19th century, [[Nietzsche]] began to write a series of polemics on the "unnatural" teachings of Christianity (e.g. sexual abstinence), and continued his criticism of Christianity to the end of his life.<ref>''The Cambridge Companion to Nietzsche'' by Bernd Magnus, Kathleen Marie Higgins 1996 {{ISBN|0-521-36767-0}} pages 90–93</ref> In the 20th century, the philosopher [[Bertrand Russell]] expressed his criticism of Christianity in ''[[Why I Am Not a Christian]]'', formulating his rejection of Christianity in the setting of logical arguments.<ref>''Russell on Religion: Selections from the Writings of Bertrand Russell'' by Bertrand Russell, Stefan Andersson and Louis Greenspan 1999 {{ISBN|0-415-18091-0}} pages 77–87</ref>
Criticism of Christianity continues to date, e.g. [[Jewish]] and [[Muslim]] theologians criticize the doctrine of the [[Trinity]] held by most Christians, stating that this doctrine in effect assumes that there are three Gods, running against the basic tenet of [[monotheism]].<ref>''Christianity: An Introduction'' by Alister E. McGrath 2006 {{ISBN|1-4051-0899-1}} pp. 125–126.</ref> New Testament scholar [[Robert M. Price]] has outlined the possibility that some Bible stories are based partly on myth in "The Christ Myth Theory and its problems".<ref>" The Christ Myth Theory and its Problems ", published 2011 by American Atheist press, Cranford, New Jersey, {{ISBN|1-57884-017-1}}</ref>
Christian apologetics aims to present a [[reason|rational]] basis for Christianity. The word "apologetic" comes from the Greek verb "apologeomai", meaning "to speak in defense of"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aalphabetic+letter%3D*a%3Aentry+group%3D263%3Aentry%3Da%29pologe%2Fomai Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, απολογέομαι (1)]</ref>. Christian apologetics has taken many forms over the centuries, starting with Paul the Apostle. The philosopher [[Thomas Aquinas]] presented five arguments for God's existence in the ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', while his ''[[Summa contra Gentiles]]'' was a major apologetic work.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dulles|first=Avery Robert Cardinal|title=A History of Apologetics|year=2005|publisher=Ignatius Press|location=San Francisco|isbn=978-0-89870-933-9|page=120}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Classical Readings in Christian Apologetics|year=1983|publisher=Zondervan|location=Grand Rapids|isbn=978-0-310-45641-4|editor=L Russ Bush|page=275}}</ref> Another famous apologist, [[G. K. Chesterton]], wrote in the early twentieth century about the benefits of religion and, specifically, Christianity. Famous for his use of paradox, Chesterton explained that while Christianity had the most mysteries, it was the most practical religion.<ref>(http://www.chesterton.org/why-i-believe-in-christianity/)</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Hauser, Chris (History major, Dartmouth College class of 2014)|date=Fall 2011|title=Faith and Paradox: G.K. Chesterton's Philosophy of Christian Paradox|journal=[[Dartmouth College publications#The Dartmouth Apologia|The Dartmouth Apologia: A Journal of Christian Thought]]|volume=6|issue=1|pages=16–20|url=http://issuu.com/apologia/docs/apol11sv25|accessdate=29 March 2015}}</ref> He pointed to the [[Role of the Christian Church in civilization|advance of Christian civilizations]] as proof of its practicality.<ref name="chesterton.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.chesterton.org/why-i-believe-in-christianity/|title=Christianity|date=6 December 2010}}</ref> The physicist and priest [[John Polkinghorne]], in his ''[[Questions of Truth]]'' discusses the subject of [[religion and science]], a topic that other Christian apologists such as [[Ravi Zacharias]], [[John Lennox]] and [[William Lane Craig]] have engaged, with the latter two men opining that the [[Religious interpretations of the Big Bang theory|inflationary Big Bang model]] is evidence for the [[existence of God]].<ref name="Howson2011">{{cite book|last=Howson|first=Colin|title=Objecting to God|date=28 July 2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781139498562|page=92|quote=Nor is the agreement coincidental, according to a substantial constituency of religious apologists, who regard the inflationary Big Bang model as direct evidence for God. John Lennox, a mathematician at the University of Oxford, tells us that 'even if the non-believers don't like it, the Big Bang fits in exactly with the Christian narrative of creation'. ... William Lane Craig is another who claims that the Biblical account is corroborated by Big Bang cosmology. Lane Craig also claims that there is a prior ''proof'' that there is a God who created this universe.}}</ref>
==See also==
{{Wikipedia books
|1=Abrahamic religions
|3=Christianity
|5=Christianity: A History
}}
* [[Christian mythology]]
* [[Christianity and politics]]
* [[Christianity and Theosophy]]
* [[Church architecture]]
* [[Manichaeism]]
* [[One true church]]
* [[Outline of Christianity]]
{{Portal bar|Christianity|Religion|Spirituality}}
==Notes==
{{reflist|group="note"}}
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
===Bibliography===
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* McLaughlin, R. Emmet, ''Caspar Schwenckfeld, reluctant radical: his life to 1540'', New Haven: Yale University Press (1986). {{ISBN|0-300-03367-2}}.
* [[Diarmaid MacCulloch|MacCulloch, Diarmaid]], ''The Reformation: A History''. Viking Adult (2004).
*MacCulloch, Diarmaid, ''[[A History of Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years]]''. London, Allen Lane. 2009. {{ISBN|978-0-7139-9869-6}}
* Marber, Peter. ''Money Changes Everything: How Global Prosperity Is Reshaping Our Needs, Values and Lifestyles''. FT Press (2003). {{ISBN|0-13-065480-9}}
* Marthaler, Berard. ''Introducing the Catechism of the Catholic Church, Traditional Themes and Contemporary Issues''. Paulist Press (1994). {{ISBN|0-8091-3495-0}}
* Mathison, Keith. ''The Shape of Sola Scriptura'' (2001).<!-- ? -->
* McClintock, John, ''Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature''. Harper &Brothers, original from [[Harvard University]] (1889)
* [[Alister McGrath|McGrath, Alister E]]. ''Christianity: An Introduction''. Blackwell Publishing (2006). {{ISBN|1-4051-0899-1}}.
* McGrath, Alister E. ''Historical Theology''.<!-- ? -->
* [[John McManners|McManners, John]]. ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity''. Oxford University Press (1990). {{ISBN|0-19-822928-3}}.
* Meconi, David Vincent. "Pagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity", in: ''Journal of Early Christian Studies''.<!-- ? -->
* Metzger, Bruce M., Michael Coogan (ed.). ''Oxford Companion to the Bible''. [[Oxford University Press]] (1993). {{ISBN|0-19-504645-5}}.
* Mullin, Robert Bruce. ''A short world history of Christianity''. Westminster John Knox Press (2008).
* Norman, Edward. ''The Roman Catholic Church, An Illustrated History''. University of California (2007) {{ISBN|978-0-520-25251-6}}
* Olson, Roger E., ''The Mosaic of Christian Belief''. InterVarsity Press (2002). {{ISBN|978-0-8308-2695-7}}.
* Orlandis, Jose, ''A Short History of the Catholic Church''. Scepter Publishers (1993) {{ISBN|1-85182-125-2}}
* Ott, Ludwig. ''Grundriß der Dogmatik''. Herder, Freiburg (1965).<!-- ? -->
* Otten, Herman J. ''Baal or God? Liberalism or Christianity, Fantasy vs. Truth: Beliefs and Practices of the Churches of the World Today''.... Second ed. New Haven, Mo.: Lutheran News, 1988.
* Pelikan, Jaroslav; Hotchkiss, Valerie (ed.) ''Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition''. [[Yale University Press]] (2003). {{ISBN|0-300-09389-6}}.
* Putnam, Robert D. ''Democracies in Flux: The Evolution of Social Capital in Contemporary Society''. Oxford University Press (2002).
* {{cite book |last=Ricciotti |first=Giuseppe |date=1999 |title=Julian the Apostate: Roman Emperor (361-363) |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L1c9CwAAQBAJ |location= |publisher=TAN Books |page= |isbn=978-1505104547 |author-link=Giuseppe Ricciotti |ref=harv}}
* Riley-Smith, Jonathan. ''The Oxford History of the Crusades''. New York: Oxford University Press, (1999).
* {{cite book|last=Robinson|first=George|title=Essential Judaism: A Complete Guide to Beliefs, Customs and Rituals|location=New York|publisher=Pocket Books|year=2000|isbn=978-0-671-03481-8|ref=harv}}
* Schama, Simon . ''A History of Britain''. Hyperion (2000). {{ISBN|0-7868-6675-6}}.
* Servetus, Michael. ''Restoration of Christianity''. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press (2007).
* Simon, Edith. ''Great Ages of Man: The Reformation''. Time-Life Books (1966). {{ISBN|0-662-27820-8}}.
* Smith, J.Z. (1998).<!-- ? -->
* Spitz, Lewis. ''The Protestant Reformation''. Concordia Publishing House (2003). {{ISBN|0-570-03320-9}}.
* Sproul, R.C. ''Knowing Scripture''.<!-- ? -->
* [[Charles Spurgeon|Spurgeon, Charles]]. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20080410133140/http://www.pcanet.org/general/cof_chapvi-x.htm#chapx A Defense of Calvinism]''.<!-- ? -->
* Sykes, Stephen; Booty, John; Knight, Jonathan. ''The Study of Anglicanism''. Augsburg Fortress Publishers (1998). {{ISBN|0-8006-3151-X}}.
* Talbott, Thomas. ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20080413172335/http://www.willamette.edu/~ttalbott/PICTURES.pdf Three Pictures of God in Western Theology]" (1995).<!-- ? -->
* Ustorf, Werner. "A missiological postscript", in: McLeod, Hugh; Ustorf, Werner (ed.). ''The Decline of Christendom in Western Europe, 1750–2000''. Cambridge University Press (2003).
* Walsh, Chad. ''Campus Gods on Trial''. Rev. and enl. ed. New York: Macmillan Co., 1962, t.p. 1964. xiv, [4], 154 p.
* Woodhead, Linda. ''An Introduction to Christianity''.<!-- ? -->
* {{cite book |last=Woods |first=Thomas E.|authorlink=Thomas Woods|year=2005 |title=How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization |location=Washington, DC |publisher=Regnery|ref=harv}}
{{Refend}}
==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
*{{Cite book |author=Gill, Robin |authorlink= Robin Gill (priest)|title=The Cambridge companion to Christian ethics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=2001|isbn=978-0-521-77918-0}}
*{{Cite book |author=Gunton, Colin E. |title=The Cambridge companion to Christian doctrine |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1997|isbn=978-0-521-47695-9}}
* MacCulloch, Diarmaid. ''Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years'' (Viking; 2010) 1,161 pages; survey by leading historian
*{{Cite book |author=MacMullen, Ramsay |title=Voting About God in Early Church Councils|publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, CT |year=2006|isbn=978-0-300-11596-3}}
*{{Cite book |author1=Padgett, Alan G. |author2=Sally Bruyneel |title=Introducing Christianity |publisher=Orbis Books |location=Maryknoll, N.Y. |year= 2003|isbn= 978-1-57075-395-4}}
*{{Cite book |author1=Price, Matthew Arlen |author2=Collins, Michael |title=The story of Christianity |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |location=New York |year=1999|isbn=978-0-7513-0467-1}}
*{{Cite book |author=[[Pope Benedict XVI|Ratzinger, Joseph]] |title=Introduction To Christianity (Communio Books) |publisher=Ignatius Press |location=San Francisco |year= 2004|isbn=978-1-58617-029-5}}
* Roper, J.C., ''Bp''. (1923), ''et al.''. ''Faith in God'', in series, ''Layman's Library of Practical Religion, Church of England in Canada'', vol. 2. Toronto, Ont.: Musson Book Co. ''N.B''.: The series statement is given in the more extended form which appears on the book's front cover.
*{{Cite book |author1=Tucker, Karen |author2=Wainwright, Geoffrey |title=The Oxford history of Christian worship |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=2006|isbn=978-0-19-513886-3}}
*{{Cite book |author=Wagner, Richard |title=Christianity for Dummies |publisher=For Dummies|year= 2004|isbn=978-0-7645-4482-8}}
*{{Cite book |author= Webb, Jeffrey B. |title=The Complete Idiot's Guide to Christianity |publisher=Alpha Books |location=Indianapolis, Ind |year= 2004|isbn= 978-1-59257-176-5 }}
* [[Garry Wills|Wills, Garry]], "A Wild and Indecent Book" (review of [[David Bentley Hart]], ''The New Testament: A Translation'', [[Yale University Press]], 577 pp.), ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXV, no. 2 (8 February 2018), pp. 34–35. Discusses some pitfalls in interpreting and translating the [[New Testament]].
*{{Cite book |author=Woodhead, Linda |title=Christianity: a very short introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=2004|isbn=978-0-19-280322-1}}
{{Refend}}
==External links==
{{Sister project links |b=Subject:Christianity |s=Portal:Christianity |d=Q5043 |species=no |n=Portal:Christianity|m=no|mw=no|voy=Christianity}}
* {{DMOZ|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Christianity/}}
* [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/115240/Christianity "Christianity"]. ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/index.shtml Religion & Ethics – Christianity] A number of introductory articles on Christianity from the [[BBC]]
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{{History of Christianity}}
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{{Religion topics}}
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[[Category:Christianity| ]]
[[Category:1st-century establishments]]
[[Category:Abrahamic religions]]
[[Category:Western culture]]
[[Category:Monotheistic religions]]
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2015}}
<!-- Article is written in American English. -->
{{Christianity|expanded=all}}
{{Lead rewrite|reason=Doesn't follow [[MOS:LEAD]], see talk for details |date=October 2018}}
{{copyedit| date=October 2018}}
'''Christianity'''<ref group="note">From [[Ancient Greek language|Ancient Greek]] Χριστός ''[[Christ (title)|Khristós]]'' ([[Latinization of Greek|Latinized]] as ''Christus''), translating [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] מָשִׁיחַ, ''[[Messiah|Māšîăḥ]]'', meaning "the [[Anointing|anointed]] one", with the [[Late Latin|Latin]] suffixes ''-ian'' and ''-itas''.</ref> is an [[Abrahamic religions|Abrahamic]] [[Monotheism|monotheistic]]<ref name="Monotheism" /> [[Major religious groups|religious group]]<ref name="PewDec2012" /> based on the [[Life of Jesus in the New Testament|life]] and [[Ministry of Jesus|teachings]] of [[Jesus]] of [[Nazareth]], also known by [[Christians]] as the [[Christ (title)|Christ]]. It is the [[Major religious groups#Largest religions|world's most populous religious group]],<ref>{{cite news |title=Study: Christian population shifts from Europe |author=Zoll, Rachel |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/feedarticle/10003271|newspaper=Associated Press |date=19 December 2011 |accessdate=25 February 2012}}</ref><ref name="PewDec2012">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/global-religious-landscape-exec/|title=The Global Religious Landscape|publisher=Pew Research Center|date=December 2012|accessdate=05 November 2018}}</ref> with over 2.4 billion followers,<ref name="World">33.39% of ~7.2 billion world population (under the section 'People') {{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html|title=World|website=The World Factbook|publisher=CIA}}</ref><ref name="gordonconwell.edu">{{cite web|url=http://www.gordonconwell.edu/resources/documents/1IBMR2015.pdf|title=Christianity 2015: Religious Diversity and Personal Contact|publisher=gordonconwell.edu|date= January 2015 |accessdate=29 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Global Christianity">{{cite web|author=ANALYSIS |url=http://www.pewforum.org/Christian/Global-Christianity-exec.aspx |title=Global Christianity |publisher=Pew Research Center |date=19 December 2011 |accessdate=17 August 2012}}</ref> or 33% of the global population,<ref group="note" name="name" /> comprising a [[Christendom|majority of the population]] in [[Christianity by country|about two-thirds of the countries]] in the world.<ref name="Global Christianity"/> Its believers affirm that Jesus is the [[Son of God (Christianity)|Son of God]], the [[Logos]], and the [[Salvation in Christianity|savior of humanity]], whose coming as the Messiah (Christ) was prophesied in the [[Old Testament]] of the [[Bible]], and chronicled in the [[New Testament]].<ref>{{cite book |title= Christianity: A Very Short Introduction|edition= |last= Woodhead|first= Linda |year= 2004|publisher= Oxford University Press |location= Oxford|isbn= |pages= n.p}}</ref> Christianity and [[Christian ethics|its ethics]] have played [[Role of Christianity in civilization|a prominent role]] in the shaping of [[Western civilization]].<ref>Religions in Global Society – Page 146, Peter Beyer – 2006</ref><ref name="Cambridge University Historical Series">Cambridge University Historical Series, ''An Essay on Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects'', p.40: Hebraism, like Hellenism, has been an all-important factor in the development of Western Civilization; Judaism, as the precursor of Christianity, has indirectly had had much to do with shaping the ideals and morality of western nations since the christian era.</ref><ref name="Caltron J.H Hayas">Caltron J.H Hayas, ''Christianity and Western Civilization'' (1953), Stanford University Press, p.2: "That certain distinctive features of our Western civilization — the civilization of western Europe and of America— have been shaped chiefly by Judaeo – Graeco – Christianity, Catholic and Protestant."</ref><ref name="Horst Hutter">Horst Hutter, University of New York, ''Shaping the Future: Nietzsche's New Regime of the Soul And Its Ascetic Practices'' (2004), p.111:three mighty founders of Western culture, namely Socrates, Jesus, and Plato.</ref><ref name="Fred Reinhard Dallmayr">Fred Reinhard Dallmayr, ''Dialogue Among Civilizations: Some Exemplary Voices'' (2004), p.22: Western civilization is also sometimes described as "Christian" or "Judaeo- Christian" civilization.</ref> Early statements of essential beliefs were the [[Apostles Creed]] and [[Nicene Creed]].
Christianity began as a [[Second Temple Judaism|Second Temple Judaic]] sect, in the 1st century, in the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] province of [[Judea (Roman province)|Judea]]. Jesus' [[apostles]] and their successors, the [[Apostolic fathers|Apostolic Fathers]], [[Early centers of Christianity|spread]] it across large parts of the [[Middle East]], [[Europe]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Transcaucasia]] and some other parts of [[Asia]], despite initial [[Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire|persecution]]. Emperor [[Constantine the Great]] converted to Christianity and decriminalized it in the [[Edict of Milan]] (313), later convening the [[First Council of Nicaea]] (325) where [[Early Christianity]] was consolidated into what would become the [[state religion of the Roman Empire]] (380).<ref>Religion in the Roman Empire, Wiley-Blackwell, by James B. Rives, page 196</ref><ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/07218b.htm Catholic encyclopedia] New Advent</ref><ref>McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', pp. 301–03.</ref> The council formulated the [[Nicene Creed]] (325), and the [[Church fathers|Church Fathers]] supervised the [[Development of the Christian biblical canon|compilation]] of the [[Christian biblical canons|Christian Bible]] (5th century).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Herbermann|first1=Charles George|title=The Catholic Encyclopedia|date=1908|publisher=Robert Appleton Company,|location=New York|isbn=978-1174601828|pages=272, 273|url=https://books.google.com/?id=IEsfAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA272}}</ref> The period of the [[first seven ecumenical councils]] is sometimes referred to as the [[Great Church]], the united [[full communion|communion]] of the [[Catholic Church]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], and [[Oriental Orthodoxy]] before their [[schism]]s. Oriental Orthodoxy split after the [[Council of Chalcedon]] (451) over [[Chalcedonian Definition|differences in Christology]], while the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church separated in the [[East–West Schism]] (1054), especially over the [[Papal primacy|authority of the Pope]]. Similarly, [[Protestantism]] [[Anti-Catholicism|split]] in [[List of the largest Protestant denominations|numerous denominations]] from the Catholic Church in the [[Protestant Reformation]] (16th century), over [[Protestant theology|theological]] and [[Protestant ecclesiology|ecclesiological]] disputes.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q-vhwjamOioC&pg=PA23&dq=anagignoskomena#v=onepage&q=anagignoskomena&f=true |title=Orthodox and Wesleyan Scriptural understanding and practice | editor=S. T. Kimbrough|publisher=St Vladimir's Seminary Press|year=2005|isbn=978-0-88141-301-4}}</ref>
Christianity was a leading influence on the development of [[Western civilisation]] in [[Europe]] during [[Late antiquity|Late Antiquity]] and the [[Middle Ages]]. Following the [[Age of Discovery]] (15th–17th century), Christianity was spread into [[the Americas]], [[Oceania]], [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] and the rest of the world via [[Christian mission|missionary work]] and [[History of colonialism|colonization]].<ref name="Spread">{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=g2AtOlJMPTUC&pg=PA52|title =Muslim-Christian Relations|publisher = [[Amsterdam University Press]]|quote=The enthusiasm for evangelization among the Christians was also accompanied by the awareness that the most immediate problem to solve was how to serve the huge number of new [[Conversion to Christianity|converts]]. Simatupang said, if the number of the Christians were double or triple, then the number of the ministers should also be doubled or tripled and the tole of the laity should be maximized and Christian service to society through schools, universities, hospitals and orphanages, should be increased. In addition, for him the Christian mission should be involved in the struggle for justice amid the process of modernization.|accessdate = 18 October 2007|isbn = 978-90-5356-938-2|year = 2006}}</ref><ref name="Charity">{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/?id=WmuV6g0yR3sC&pg=PA77|page=77|author=Fred Kammer|title =Doing Faith Justice|publisher = [[Paulist Press]]|quote=Theologians, bishops, and preachers urged the Christian community to be as compassionate as their God was, reiterating that creation was for all of humanity. They also accepted and developed the identification of Christ with the poor and the requisite Christian duty to the poor. Religious congregations and individual charismatic leaders promoted the development of a number of helping institutions-hospitals, hospices for pilgrims, orphanages, shelters for unwed mothers-that laid the foundation for the modern "large network of hospitals, orphanages and schools, to serve the poor and society at large."|accessdate = 18 October 2007|isbn = 978-0-8091-4227-9|date = 1 May 2004}}</ref><ref name="Service">{{cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=dz_EM2ofIb4C&pg=PA132|title =Christian Church Women: Shapers of a Movement|publisher = Chalice Press|quote=In the central provinces of India they established schools, orphanages, hospitals, and churches, and spread the gospel message in zenanas.|accessdate = 18 October 2007|isbn = 978-0-8272-0463-8|date = March 1994}}</ref>
Today, the [[List of Christian denominations by number of members|four largest branches of Christianity]] are the [[Catholic Church]] (1.3 billion), [[Protestantism]] (920 million), the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] (260 million)<ref name=BBC>{{cite news|last=Peter|first=Laurence|title=Orthodox Church split: Five reasons why it matters|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-45877584|publisher=[[BBC]]|date=October 17, 2018|accessdate=October 17, 2018}}</ref> and [[Oriental Orthodoxy]] (86 million), amid various efforts toward [[ecumenism]]. Their [[Christian theology|theology]] and [[Profession (religious)|professions]] of faith, in addition to the [[Bible]], generally hold in common that Jesus [[Passion of Jesus|suffered]], [[Crucifixion of Jesus|died]], was [[Burial of Jesus|buried]], [[Harrowing of Hell|descended into hell]] and [[Resurrection of Jesus|rose]] from the dead to grant [[Eternal life (Christianity)|eternal life]] to those who believe in him for the [[forgiveness#Christianity|forgiveness]] of their [[Christian views on sin|sin]]s. They further maintain that Jesus physically [[Ascension of Jesus|ascended]] into [[Heaven in Christianity|heaven]], where he reigns with [[God the Father]] in the unity of the [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]], and that he will [[Second Coming|return]] to [[Last Judgment|judge]] the living and the dead and grant eternal life to his followers. Christianity remains culturally diverse in its [[Western Christianity|Western]] and [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern]] branches, as well as in its doctrines concerning [[ecclesiology]] ([[church visible]]/[[church invisible]]), [[ordination]] ([[apostolic succession]], [[papal primacy]]), and [[Christology]] ([[Chalcedonianism]]/[[Non-Chalcedonianism]]).
{{TOC limit|3}}
==Beliefs==
There are many important differences of interpretation and opinion of the [[Bible]] and [[sacred tradition]] on which Christianity is based.<ref name="Olsen">Olson, ''The Mosaic of Christian Belief''.</ref> Because of these irreconcilable differences in theology and a lack of consensus on the core tenets of Christianity, [[Catholic Church|Catholics]], [[Protestantism|Protestants]] and [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]] often deny that members of certain other branches are Christians.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ehrman|first1=Bart|title=Lost Christianities: the battles for scripture and the faiths we never knew|url=https://books.google.com/?id=URdACxKubDIC|year=2003|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, New York|isbn=978-0-19-518249-1|page=1|chapter=Introduction: Recouping Our Losses|quote=Many of these Christian groups, of course, refuse to consider other such groups Christian.}}</ref>
===Creeds===
{{Main|Creed#Christian creeds|List of Christian creeds}}
{{Wikisource|Apostles' Creed}}
{{Wikisource|Nicene Creed}}
Concise doctrinal statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as creeds (from Latin ''credo'', meaning "I believe"). They began as baptismal formulae and were later expanded during the [[Christology|Christological]] controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith.
Many [[evangelical Protestants]] reject creeds as definitive statements of faith, even while agreeing with some or all of the substance of the creeds. [[Baptists|The Baptists]] have been non-creedal "in that they have not sought to establish binding authoritative confessions of faith on one another."<ref name=Avis>Avis, Paul (2002) ''The Christian Church: An Introduction to the Major Traditions'', SPCK, London, {{ISBN|0-281-05246-8}} paperback</ref>{{rp|p.111}} Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in the [[Restoration Movement]], such as the [[Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)]], the [[Evangelical Christian Church in Canada]] and the [[Churches of Christ]].<ref>White, Howard A. ''[http://www.appiusforum.net/restoration.html The History of the Church]''.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Cummins |first=Duane D. |title=A handbook for Today's Disciples in the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) |edition=Revised |publisher=Chalice Press |year=1991 |location=St Louis, MO |pages= |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cNrs2YwoSrMC |isbn=978-0-8272-1425-5}}</ref>{{rp|14–15}}<ref name="Rhodes 2005">Ron Rhodes, ''The Complete Guide to Christian Denominations'', Harvest House Publishers, 2005, {{ISBN|0-7369-1289-4}}</ref>{{rp|123}}
[[File:Nicaea icon.jpg|thumb|An [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern Christian]] icon depicting [[Constantine I and Christianity|Emperor Constantine]] and the Fathers of the [[First Council of Nicaea]] (325) as holding the Niceno–Constantinopolitan Creed of 381]]
The [[Apostles' Creed]] is the most widely accepted statement of the articles of Christian faith. It is used by a number of [[List of Christian denominations|Christian denominations]] for both [[liturgy|liturgical]] and [[catechesis|catechetical]] purposes, most visibly by liturgical churches of [[Western Christian]] tradition, including the [[Latin Church]] of the [[Catholic Church]], [[Lutheranism]], [[Anglicanism]] and [[Western Rite Orthodoxy]]. It is also used by [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterians]], [[Methodism|Methodists]] and [[Congregational church|Congregationalists]]. This particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its central doctrines are those of the Trinity and God the Creator. Each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the [[Apostolic Age|apostolic period]]. The creed was apparently used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome.<ref>Pelikan/Hotchkiss, ''Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition''.</ref>
Its main points include:
* Belief in [[God the Father]], [[Jesus Christ]] as the [[Son of God]], and the [[Holy Spirit (Christianity)|Holy Spirit]]
* The [[crucifixion of Jesus|death]], [[Harrowing of Hell|descent into hell]], [[resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]] and [[Ascension of Jesus|ascension]] of Christ
* The holiness of the [[Ecclesia (church)|Church]] and the [[communion of saints]]
* Christ's [[second coming]], the [[Last Judgment|Day of Judgement]] and [[Salvation in Christianity|salvation]] of the faithful.
The [[Nicene Creed]] was formulated, largely in response to [[Arianism]], at the Councils of [[First Council of Nicaea|Nicaea]] and [[First Council of Constantinople|Constantinople]] in 325 and 381 respectively <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cuf.org/2005/02/we-believe-in-one-god-the-nicene-creed-at-mass/ |title="We Believe in One God….": The Nicene Creed and Mass |date=February 2005 |website= |publisher=Catholics United for the Fath |registration=yes |accessdate=16 June 2014}}</ref><ref>''Encyclopedia of Religion'', "Arianism".</ref> and ratified as the universal creed of [[Christendom]] by the [[First Council of Ephesus]] in 431.<ref name="ephesus">''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', [http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05491a.htm "Council of Ephesus"].</ref>
The [[Chalcedonian Definition]], or Creed of Chalcedon, developed at the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in 451,<ref>Christian History Institute, [https://archive.is/20080106201425/http://chi.gospelcom.net/DAILYF/2003/10/daily-10-08-2003.shtml ''First Meeting of the Council of Chalcedon''].</ref> though rejected by the [[Oriental Orthodox]] churches,<ref>{{cite journal|title=The Oriental Orthodox Rejection of Chalcedon|url=http://www.britishorthodox.org/113e.php|journal=Glastonbury Review|author=Peter Theodore Farrington|date=February 2006|issue=113|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080619122112/http://www.britishorthodox.org/113e.php|archivedate=19 June 2008}}</ref> taught Christ "to be acknowledged in two natures, inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably": one divine and one human, and that both natures, while perfect in themselves, are nevertheless also [[Hypostatic union|perfectly united into one person]].<ref>Pope Leo I, [http://www.dailycatholic.org/history/4ecumen2.htm ''Letter to Flavian'']</ref>
The [[Athanasian Creed]], received in the Western Church as having the same status as the Nicene and Chalcedonian, says: "We worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; neither confounding the Persons nor dividing the [[Consubstantiality|Substance]]."<ref>''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', "[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02033b.htm Athanasian Creed]".</ref>
Most Christians ([[Catholic Church|Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodox]] and [[Protestant]] alike) accept the use of creeds, and subscribe to at least one of the creeds mentioned above.<ref name="UMC—Our Common Heritage as Christians">{{cite web|url=http://archives.umc.org/interior.asp?mid=1806 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060114032325/http://archives.umc.org/interior.asp?mid=1806 |dead-url=yes |archive-date=14 January 2006 |title=Our Common Heritage as Christians |publisher=The United Methodist Church |accessdate=31 December 2007 }}</ref>
===Jesus===
[[File:CompositeJesus.JPG|thumb|right|upright=0.9|Various [[Depiction of Jesus|depictions of Jesus]]]]
{{Main|Jesus|Jesus in Christianity|Christ (title)}}
{{See also|Incarnation (Christianity)}}
{{See also|Jesus in comparative mythology}}
The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in [[Jesus]] as the [[Son of God (Christianity)|Son of God]] and the [[Messiah]] (Christ). Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was [[anointing|anointed]] by God as savior of humanity and hold that Jesus' coming was the fulfillment of [[Messianic prophecies of Jesus|messianic prophecies]] of the [[Old Testament]]. The Christian concept of the Messiah differs significantly from [[Jewish Messiah|the contemporary Jewish concept]]. The core Christian belief is that through belief in and acceptance of [[Death and Resurrection of Jesus|the death and resurrection of Jesus]], [[original sin|sinful]] humans can be reconciled to God and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of [[Immortality|eternal life]].<ref>Metzger/Coogan, ''Oxford Companion to the Bible'', pp. 513, 649.</ref>
While there have been many [[Christian theology|theological]] disputes over the [[Christology|nature of Jesus]] over the earliest centuries of Christian history, generally Christians believe that Jesus is [[Incarnation (Christianity)|God incarnate]] and "[[Hypostatic union|true God and true man]]" (or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus, having become [[Incarnation (Christianity)|fully human]], suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not [[Christian views on sin|sin]]. As fully God, he rose to life again. According to the [[New Testament]], he [[Resurrection of Jesus|rose]] from the dead,<ref>{{Bibleref2|Acts|2:24}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|2:31–32}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|3:15}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|3:26}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|4:10}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|5:30}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|10:40–41}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|13:30}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|13:34}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|13:37}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|17:30–31}}, {{Bibleref2|Romans|10:9}}, {{bibleref2|1Cor|15:15 || 1 Cor. 15:15}}, {{bibleref2-nb|1Cor|6:14}}, {{bibleref2|2Cor|4:14 || 2 Cor. 4:14}}, {{Bibleref2|Gal|1:1}}, {{Bibleref2|Eph|1:20}}, {{Bibleref2|Col|2:12}}, {{bibleref2|1Thess|1:10 || 1 Thess. 11:10}}, {{Bibleref2|Heb.|13:20}}, {{bibleref2|1Pet|1:3 || 1 Pet. 1:3}}, {{bibleref2-nb|1Pet|1:21}}</ref> [[Ascension of Jesus Christ|ascended]] to heaven, is seated at the right hand of the Father<ref>[[Wikisource:Nicene Creed]]</ref> and will ultimately [[Second Coming|return]]{{bibleref2c|Acts|1:9–11}} to fulfill the rest of [[Messianic prophecy]], including the [[resurrection of the dead]], the [[Last Judgment]] and final establishment of the [[Kingdom of God (Christianity)|Kingdom of God]].
According to the [[Biblical canon|canonical]] [[gospel]]s of [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]], Jesus was [[Incarnation (Christianity)|conceived]] by the [[Holy Spirit (Christianity)|Holy Spirit]] and [[Nativity of Jesus|born]] from [[Mary, mother of Jesus|the Virgin Mary]]. Little of Jesus' childhood is recorded in the canonical gospels, although [[New Testament apocrypha|infancy gospels]] were popular in antiquity. In comparison, his adulthood, especially the week before his death, is well documented in the gospels contained within the [[New Testament]], because that part of his life is believed to be most important. The biblical accounts of [[Ministry of Jesus|Jesus' ministry]] include: [[Baptism of Jesus|his baptism]], [[Miracles of Jesus|miracles]], preaching, teaching and deeds.
====Death and resurrection====
{{Main|Crucifixion of Jesus|Resurrection of Jesus}}
[[File:Cristo crucificado.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|''[[Christ Crucified (Velázquez)|Crucifixion]]'', representing the death of [[Jesus]] on the [[Christian Cross|Cross]], painting by [[Diego Velázquez]], 17th century]]
Christians consider the resurrection of Jesus to be the cornerstone of their faith (see [[1 Corinthians 15]]) and the most important event in history.<ref>Hanegraaff. ''Resurrection: The Capstone in the Arch of Christianity''.</ref> Among Christian beliefs, the death and resurrection of Jesus are two core events on which much of Christian doctrine and theology is based.<ref name="ACU-Death & Resurrection">{{cite web|url=http://dlibrary.acu.edu.au/research/theology/Walsh.htm |title=The Significance of the Death and Resurrection of Jesus for the Christian |publisher=Australian Catholic University National |accessdate=16 May 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070901153606/http://dlibrary.acu.edu.au/research/theology/Walsh.htm |archivedate=1 September 2007 |df=dmy }}</ref> According to the New Testament, Jesus was [[Crucifixion|crucified]], died a physical death, was buried within a tomb and rose from the dead three days later.{{bibleref2c|Jn.|19:30–31}} {{bibleref2c|Mk.|16:1}} {{bibleref2c-nb|Mark|16:6}}
The New Testament mentions several [[resurrection appearances of Jesus]] on different occasions to his [[twelve apostles]] and [[disciple (Christianity)|disciples]], including "more than five hundred brethren at once",{{bibleref2c|1Cor|15:6}} before Jesus' [[Ascension of Jesus Christ|Ascension]] to heaven. Jesus' death and resurrection are commemorated by Christians in all worship services, with special emphasis during [[Holy Week]] which includes [[Good Friday]] and [[Easter]] Sunday.
The death and resurrection of Jesus are usually considered the most important events in [[Christian theology]], partly because they demonstrate that Jesus has power over life and death and therefore has the authority and power to give people [[Eternal life (Christianity)|eternal life]].<ref>{{bibleref2 || John|3:16}}, {{bibleref2-nb|John|5:24}}, {{bibleref2-nb|John|6:39–40}}, {{bibleref2-nb|John|6:47}}, {{bibleref2-nb|John|10:10}}, {{bibleref2-nb|John|11:25–26}}, and {{bibleref2-nb|John|17:3}}</ref>
Christian churches accept and teach the [[New Testament]] account of the resurrection of Jesus with very few exceptions.<ref>This is drawn from a number of sources, especially the early Creeds, the ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', certain theological works, and various Confessions drafted during the Reformation including the ''Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England'', works contained in the ''Book of Concord''.</ref> Some modern scholars use the belief of Jesus' followers in the resurrection as a point of departure for establishing the continuity of the [[historical Jesus]] and the proclamation of the [[early church]].<ref>Fuller, ''The Foundations of New Testament Christology'', p. 11.</ref> Some [[Liberal Christianity|liberal Christians]] do not accept a literal bodily resurrection,<ref>A [[Jesus Seminar]] conclusion: "in the view of the Seminar, he did not rise bodily from the dead; the resurrection is based instead on [[vision hypothesis|visionary experiences]] of [[Saint Peter|Peter]], [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]], and [[Mary Magdalene|Mary]]."</ref><ref>Funk. ''The Acts of Jesus: What Did Jesus Really Do?''.</ref> seeing the story as richly symbolic and spiritually nourishing [[mythology|myth]]. Arguments over death and resurrection claims occur at many religious [[debate]]s and [[interfaith|interfaith dialogues]].<ref>Lorenzen. ''Resurrection, Discipleship, Justice: Affirming the Resurrection Jesus Christ Today'', p. 13.</ref> [[Paul the Apostle]], an early Christian convert and missionary, wrote, "If Christ was not raised, then all our preaching is useless, and your trust in God is useless."{{bibleref2c|1Cor|15:14}} <ref>Ball/Johnsson (ed.). ''The Essential Jesus''.</ref>
===Salvation===
{{Main|Salvation (Christianity)}}
[[Paul the Apostle]], like Jews and Roman [[pagan]]s of his time, believed that sacrifice can bring about new kinship ties, purity and eternal life.<ref name="remedy">{{cite journal |last=Eisenbaum |first=Pamela |date=Winter 2004 |title=A Remedy for Having Been Born of Woman: Jesus, Gentiles, and Genealogy in Romans |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=123 |issue=4 |pages=671–702 |url=http://www.sbl-site.org/assets/pdfs/JBL1234.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=3 April 2009 |doi=10.2307/3268465 |jstor=3268465 |subscription=yes}}</ref> For Paul, the necessary sacrifice was the death of Jesus: Gentiles who are "Christ's" are, like Israel, descendants of Abraham and "heirs according to the promise".{{bibleref2c|Gal.|3:29}} <ref>Wright, N.T. ''What Saint Paul Really Said: Was Paul of Tarsus the Real Founder of Christianity?'' (Oxford, 1997), p. 121.</ref> The God who raised Jesus from the dead would also give new life to the "mortal bodies" of Gentile Christians, who had become with Israel the "children of God" and were therefore no longer "in the flesh".{{bibleref2c|Rom.|8:9,11,16}} <ref name="remedy" />
Modern Christian churches tend to be much more concerned with how humanity can be [[eternal salvation|saved]] from a universal condition of sin and death than the question of how both Jews and Gentiles can be in God's family. According to both Catholic and Protestant doctrine, salvation comes by Jesus' [[substitutionary atonement|substitutionary death and resurrection]]. The Catholic Church teaches that salvation does not occur without faithfulness on the part of Christians; converts must live in accordance with principles of love and ordinarily must be baptized.<ref>CCC 846; Vatican II, Lumen Gentium 14</ref><ref>See quotations from Council of Trent on Justification at [http://www.justforcatholics.org/a14.htm Justforcatholics.org]</ref> [[Martin Luther]] taught that baptism was necessary for salvation, but modern Lutherans and other Protestants tend to teach that salvation is a gift that comes to an individual by [[Divine grace|God's grace]], sometimes defined as "unmerited favor", even apart from baptism.
Christians differ in their views on the extent to which individuals' salvation is pre-ordained by God. Reformed theology places distinctive emphasis on grace by teaching that individuals are [[total depravity|completely incapable of self-redemption]], but that [[irresistible grace|sanctifying grace is irresistible]].<ref>Westminster Confession, [http://www.spurgeon.org/~phil/creeds/wcf.htm#chap10 Chapter X] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140528062341/http://www.spurgeon.org/~phil/creeds/wcf.htm#chap10 |date=28 May 2014 }};<br />Spurgeon, ''[http://www.spurgeon.org/calvinis.htm A Defense of Calvinism] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080410133140/http://www.spurgeon.org/calvinis.htm |date=10 April 2008 }}''.</ref> In contrast Catholics, Orthodox Christians and [[Arminianism|Arminian]] Protestants believe that the exercise of [[free will]] is necessary to have faith in Jesus.<ref>{{cite web|website=[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]|title=Grace and Justification|url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p3s1c3a2.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100815001751/http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p3s1c3a2.htm|archivedate=15 August 2010}}</ref>
===Trinity===
{{Main|Trinity}}
[[File:Shield-Trinity-Scutum-Fidei-English.svg|thumb|upright=0.9|The [[Trinity]] is the belief that [[God in Christianity|God]] is one God in three persons: the [[God the Father|Father]], the [[God the Son|Son]] ([[Jesus]]), and the [[Holy Spirit (Christianity)|Holy Spirit]].<ref name="def-lateran">Definition of the [[Fourth Lateran Council]] quoted in ''[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]'' [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/_P17.HTM#1FT §253].</ref>]]
''Trinity'' refers to the teaching that the one God<ref name="Monotheism">Christianity's status as monotheistic is affirmed in, among other sources, the ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' (article "[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10499a.htm Monotheism]"); [[William F. Albright]], ''From the Stone Age to Christianity''; [[H. Richard Niebuhr]]; About.com, [http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/monotheisticreligions/ ''Monotheistic Religion resources'']; Kirsch, ''God Against the Gods''; Woodhead, ''An Introduction to Christianity''; [[Columbia Encyclopedia|The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia]] [http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/society/A0833762.html ''Monotheism'']; The New Dictionary of [[Cultural Literacy]], [https://web.archive.org/web/20071212011435/http://www.bartleby.com/59/5/monotheism.html ''monotheism'']; New Dictionary of Theology, [http://www.ntwrightpage.com/Wright_NDCT_Paul.htm ''Paul''], pp. 496–99; Meconi. "Pagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity". p. 111f.</ref> comprises three distinct, eternally co-existing persons; the ''[[God the Father|Father]]'', the ''Son'' (incarnate in Jesus Christ) and the ''[[Holy Spirit]]''. Together, these three persons are sometimes called the [[Godhead (Christianity)|Godhead]],<ref>Kelly. ''Early Christian Doctrines''. pp. 87–90.</ref><ref>Alexander. ''New Dictionary of Biblical Theology''. p. 514f.</ref><ref>McGrath. ''Historical Theology''. p. 61.</ref> although there is no single term in use in Scripture to denote the unified Godhead.<ref>Metzger/Coogan. ''Oxford Companion to the Bible''. p. 782.</ref> In the words of the [[Athanasian Creed]], an early statement of Christian belief, "the Father is God, the Son is God and the Holy Spirit is God, and yet there are not three Gods but one God".<ref>Kelly. ''The Athanasian Creed''.</ref> They are distinct from another: the Father has no source, the Son is begotten of the Father and the Spirit proceeds from the Father. Though distinct, the three persons cannot be divided from one another in being or in operation. While some Christians also believe that God appeared as the Father in the [[Old Testament]], it is agreed that he appeared as the Son in the [[New Testament]], and will still continue to manifest as the Holy Spirit in the present. But still, God still existed as three persons in each of these times.<ref>Oxford, "Encyclopedia Of Christianity, pg1207</ref> However, traditionally there is a belief that it was the Son who appeared in the Old Testament because, for example, when the [[Trinity#Art|Trinity is depicted in art]], the Son typically has the distinctive appearance, a [[cruciform halo]] identifying Christ, and in depictions of the [[Garden of Eden]] this looks forward to an Incarnation yet to occur. In some [[Early Christian art|Early Christian]] [[sarcophagi]] the Logos is distinguished with a beard, "which allows him to appear ancient, even preexistent."<ref>Heidi J. Hornik and Mikeal Carl Parsons, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BmWpMKaDBVUC&pg=PA34 Interpreting Christian Art: Reflections on Christian art]'', Mercer University Press, 2003, {{ISBN|0-86554-850-1}}, pp. 32–35.</ref>
The [[Trinity]] is an essential doctrine of mainstream Christianity. From earlier than the times of the [[Nicene Creed]], 325, Christianity advocated<ref>''Examples of ante-Nicene statements'':{{quote|Hence all the power of magic became dissolved; and every bond of wickedness was destroyed, men's ignorance was taken away, and the old kingdom abolished God Himself appearing in the form of a man, for the renewal of eternal life.|St. Ignatius of Antioch in ''Letter to the Ephesians'', ch.4, shorter version, Roberts-Donaldson translation}}{{quote|We have also as a Physician the Lord our God Jesus the Christ the only-begotten Son and Word, before time began, but who afterwards became also man, of Mary the virgin. For 'the Word was made flesh.' Being incorporeal, He was in the body; being impassible, He was in a passable body; being immortal, He was in a mortal body; being life, He became subject to corruption, that He might free our souls from death and corruption, and heal them, and might restore them to health, when they were diseased with ungodliness and wicked lusts|St. Ignatius of Antioch in ''Letter to the Ephesians'', ch.7, shorter version, Roberts-Donaldson translation}}
{{quote|The Church, though dispersed throughout the whole world, even to the ends of the earth, has received from the apostles and their disciples this faith: ...one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven, and earth, and the sea, and all things that are in them; and in one Christ Jesus, the Son of God, who became incarnate for our salvation; and in the Holy Spirit, who proclaimed through the prophets the dispensations of God, and the advents, and the birth from a virgin, and the passion, and the resurrection from the dead, and the ascension into heaven in the flesh of the beloved Christ Jesus, our Lord, and His manifestation from heaven in the glory of the Father 'to gather all things in one,' and to raise up anew all flesh of the whole human race, in order that to Christ Jesus, our Lord, and God, and Savior, and King, according to the will of the invisible Father, 'every knee should bow, of things in heaven, and things in earth, and things under the earth, and that every tongue should confess; to him, and that He should execute just judgment towards all...|St. Irenaeus in ''Against Heresies'', ch.X, v.I, {{Citation | last = Donaldson| first = Sir James|title = Ante Nicene Fathers, Volume 1: Apostolic Fathers, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus | publisher = [[William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co.]] | year = 1950| isbn = 978-0802880871}}}}
{{quote|For, in the name of God, the Father and Lord of the universe, and of our Savior Jesus Christ, and of the Holy Spirit, they then receive the washing with water|Justin Martyr in ''First Apology'', ch. LXI, {{Citation | last = Donaldson| first = Sir James|title = Ante Nicene Fathers, Volume 1: Apostolic Fathers, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus | publisher = Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company| year = 1950| isbn = 978-0802880871}}}}
</ref> the triune [[Holy Mystery|mystery]]-nature of [[God in Christianity|God]] as a normative profession of faith. According to [[Roger E. Olson]] and Christopher Hall, through prayer, meditation, study and practice, the Christian community concluded "that God must exist as both a unity and trinity", codifying this in ecumenical council at the end of the 4th century.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Olson|first1=Roger E.|title=The Trinity|date=2002|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|page=15|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SUAidAp8AgEC|isbn=978-0-8028-4827-7}}</ref><ref>Fowler. ''World Religions: An Introduction for Students''. p. 58.</ref><!-- ref supports entire paragraph -->
According to this doctrine, God is not divided in the sense that each person has a third of the whole; rather, each person is considered to be fully God (see [[Perichoresis]]). The distinction lies in their relations, the Father being unbegotten; the Son being begotten of the Father; and the Holy Spirit proceeding from the Father and (in [[Western Christian]] theology) [[Filioque|from the Son]]. Regardless of this apparent difference, the three "persons" are each [[eternity|eternal]] and [[omnipotent]]. Other Christian religions including [[Unitarian Universalism]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], [[Mormonism]] and others do not share those views on the Trinity.
The Greek word ''trias''<ref>{{LSJ|tria/s1|τριάς|ref}}.</ref>{{refn|group=note|name=Trias-Trinitas|The Latin equivalent, from which English ''trinity'' is derived,<ref>{{OEtymD|trinity}}</ref> is ''trinitas''<ref name="Trinitas"/> though Latin also borrowed Greek ''trias'' verbatim.<ref>{{L&S|trias|ref}}</ref>}} is first seen in this sense in the works of [[Theophilus of Antioch]]; his text reads: "of the Trinity, of God, and of His Word, and of His Wisdom".<ref>{{cite book|series=[[Patrologiae Graecae|Patrologiae Graecae Cursus Completus]]|volume=6|author=Theophilus of Antioch|title=Apologia ad Autolycum|chapter=Book II.15|chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/PatrologiaGraeca/Patrologia%20Graeca%20Vol.%20006#page/n569|language=Greek, Latin|quote=Ὡσαύτως καὶ αἱ τρεῖς ἡμέραι τῶν φωστήρων γεγονυῖαι τύποι εἰσὶν τῆς Τριάδος, τοῦ Θεοῦ, καὶ τοῦ Λόγου αὐτοῦ, καὶ τῆς Σοφίας αὐτοῦ.}}</ref> The term may have been in use before this time; its Latin equivalent,{{refn|group=note|name=Trias-Trinitas}} ''trinitas'',<ref name="Trinitas">{{L&S|trinitas|ref}}</ref> appears afterwards with an explicit reference to the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, in [[Tertullian]].<ref>McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity''. p. 50.</ref><ref>{{citation|author=Tertullian|title=De Pudicitia|chapter=21|url=http://www.tertullian.org/latin/de_pudicitia.htm|language=Latin|quote=Nam et ipsa ecclesia proprie et principaliter ipse est spiritus, in quo est trinitas unius diuinitatis, Pater et Filius et Spiritus sanctus.}}.</ref> In the following century the word was in general use. It is found in many passages of [[Origen]].<ref>McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', p. 53.</ref>
====Trinitarians====
{{Main|Trinitarianism}}
''Trinitarianism'' denotes those Christians who believe in the concept of the [[Trinity]]. Almost all Christian denominations and churches hold Trinitarian beliefs. Although the words "Trinity" and "Triune" do not appear in the Bible, theologians beginning in the 3rd century developed the term and concept to facilitate comprehension of the New Testament teachings of God as being Father, Son and Holy Spirit. Since that time, Christian theologians have been careful to emphasize that Trinity does not imply that there are three gods (the antitrinitarian heresy of [[Tritheism]]), nor that each hypostasis of the Trinity is one-third of an infinite God (partialism), nor that the Son and the Holy Spirit are beings created by and subordinate to the Father ([[Arianism]]). Rather, the Trinity is defined as one God in three Persons.<ref>Moltman, Jurgen. ''The Trinity and the Kingdom: The Doctrine of God.'' Tr. from German. Fortress Press, 1993. {{ISBN|0-8006-2825-X}}</ref>
====Nontrinitarianism====
{{Main|Nontrinitarianism}}
''Nontrinitarianism'' (or ''antitrinitarianism'') refers to theology that rejects the doctrine of the Trinity. Various nontrinitarian views, such as [[adoptionism]] or [[modalism]], existed in early Christianity, leading to the disputes about [[Christology]].<ref>Harnack, ''[http://www.ccel.org/ccel/harnack/dogma1.ii.iii.iii.html History of Dogma]''.</ref> Nontrinitarianism later appeared again in the [[Gnosticism]] of the [[Cathars]] in the 11th through 13th centuries, among groups with [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]] theology in the [[Protestant Reformation]] of the 16th century,<ref>Pocket Dictionary of Church History Nathan P. Feldmeth p.135 "Unitarianism. Unitarians emerged from Protestant Christian beginnings in the sixteenth century with a central focus on the unity of God and subsequent denial of the doctrine of the Trinity"</ref> in the 18th-century [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] and in some groups arising during the [[Second Great Awakening]] of the 19th century.
===Scriptures===
{{Main|Bible|Biblical canon|Development of the Christian Biblical canon|Christian scripture}}
[[File:Gutenberg Bible, Lenox Copy, New York Public Library, 2009. Pic 01.jpg|upright=1.15|thumb|left|The [[Bible]] is the sacred book in Christianity.]]
Christianity, like other religions, has adherents whose beliefs and biblical interpretations vary. Christianity regards the [[biblical canon]], the [[Old Testament]] and the [[New Testament]], as the [[Biblical inspiration|inspired]] word of God. The traditional view of inspiration is that God worked through human authors so that what they produced was what God wished to communicate. The Greek word referring to inspiration in {{bibleref2|2Timothy|3:16||2 Timothy 3:16}} is ''theopneustos'', which literally means "God-breathed".<ref>{{cite book |title=Hermeneutics: Principles and Processes of Biblical Interpretation |edition=2nd |last=Virkler |first=Henry A. |editor-last=Ayayo |editor-first=Karelynne Gerber |year=2007 |publisher=Baker Academic |location=Grand Rapids, USA |isbn=978-0-8010-3138-0 |page=21 }}</ref>
Some believe that divine inspiration makes our present Bibles [[Biblical inerrancy|inerrant]]. Others claim inerrancy for the Bible in its original manuscripts, although none of those are extant. Still others maintain that only a particular translation is inerrant, such as the [[King James Version]].<ref>{{cite web|website=[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]|title=Inspiration and Truth of Sacred Scripture|url=http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100909213651/http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm|archivedate=9 September 2010}}(§105–108)</ref><ref>Second Helvetic Confession, [https://web.archive.org/web/20071203120450/http://www.creeds.net/reformed/helvetic/c01.htm ''Of the Holy Scripture Being the True Word of God'']</ref><ref>[[Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy]], [http://www.reformed.org/documents/icbi.html ''online text'']</ref> Another closely related view is [[Biblical infallibility]] or limited inerrancy, which affirms that the Bible is free of error as a guide to salvation, but may include errors on matters such as history, geography or science.
The [[books of the Bible]] accepted by the Orthodox, Catholic and Protestant churches vary somewhat, with Jews accepting only the Hebrew Bible as canonical; there is however substantial overlap. These variations are a reflection of the range of [[tradition]]s, and of the [[Ecumenical council|councils]] that have convened on the subject. Every version of the Old Testament always includes the books of the [[Tanakh]], the canon of the [[Hebrew Bible]]. The Catholic and Orthodox canons, in addition to the Tanakh, also include the [[Deuterocanonical Books]] as part of the Old Testament. These books appear in the [[Septuagint]], but are regarded by Protestants to be [[Biblical apocrypha|apocryphal]]. However, they are considered to be important historical documents which help to inform the understanding of words, grammar and syntax used in the historical period of their conception. Some versions of the Bible include a separate Apocrypha section between the Old Testament and the New Testament.<ref>Metzger/Coogan, ''Oxford Companion to the Bible''. p. 39.</ref> The New Testament, originally written in [[Koine Greek]], contains 27 books which are agreed upon by all churches.
Modern scholarship has raised many issues with the Bible. While the [[Authorized King James Version]] is held to by many because of its striking English prose, in fact it was translated from the Erasmus Greek Bible which in turn "was based on a single 12th Century manuscript that is one of the worst manuscripts we have available to us".<ref name="Ehrman209-183">Ehrman, Bart D. (2005). Misquoting Jesus: the story behind who changed the Bible and why. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco {{ISBN|978-0060738174}} pages 209, 183</ref> Much scholarship in the past several hundred years has gone into comparing different manuscripts in order to reconstruct the original text. Another issue is that several books are considered to be forgeries. The injunction that women "be silent and submissive" in 1 Timothy 2<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Timothy%202:11-12&version=NIV |title=1 Timothy 2:11–12 NIV – A woman should learn in quietness and |publisher=Bible Gateway |date= |accessdate=12 March 2013}}</ref> is thought by many to be a forgery by a follower of Paul, a similar phrase in 1 Corinthians 14,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20corinthians%2014:34-35&version=NIV |title=1 corinthians 14:34–35 NIV – Women should remain silent in the |publisher=Bible Gateway |date= |accessdate=12 March 2013}}</ref> which is thought to be by Paul, appears in different places in different manuscripts and is thought to originally be a margin note by a copyist.<ref name="Ehrman209-183" /> Other verses in 1 Corinthians, such as 1 Corinthians 11:2–16 where women are instructed to wear a covering over their hair "when they pray or prophesies",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20corinthians%2011:2-16&version=NIV |title=1 corinthians 11:2–16 NIV – On Covering the Head in Worship – I |publisher=Bible Gateway |date= |accessdate=12 March 2013}}</ref> contradict this verse.
A final issue with the Bible is the way in which books were selected for inclusion in the New Testament. [[Gnostic Gospels|Other Gospels]] have now been recovered, such as those found near [[Nag Hammadi]] in 1945, and while some of these texts are quite different from what Christians have been used to, it should be understood that some of this newly recovered Gospel material is quite possibly contemporaneous with, or even earlier than, the New Testament Gospels. The core of the [[Gospel of Thomas]], in particular, may date from as early as AD 50 (although some major scholars contest this early dating),<ref>{{cite book|last1=Wright|first1=N.T.|title=The New Testament and the People of God|date=1992|publisher=Fortress Press|location=Minneapolis|isbn=978-0-8006-2681-5|pages=435–443}}</ref> and if so would provide an insight into the earliest gospel texts that underlie the canonical Gospels, texts that are mentioned in Luke 1:1–2. The Gospel of Thomas contains much that is familiar from the canonical Gospels—verse 113, for example ("The Father's Kingdom is spread out upon the earth, but people do not see it"),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gnosis.org/naghamm/gosthom.html |title=The Gospel of Thomas Collection – Translations and Resources |publisher=Gnosis.org |date= |accessdate=12 March 2013}}</ref> is reminiscent of Luke 17:20–21<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Luke+17%3A20-21&version=NIV |title=Luke 17:20–21 NIV – The Coming of the Kingdom of God |publisher=Bible Gateway |date= |accessdate=12 March 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mmnet.com.au/australian_landscape_photos/writer/Reflections.html |title=Reflections on religions |publisher=Mmnet.com.au |date= |accessdate=12 March 2013}}</ref>—and the [[Gospel of John]], with a terminology and approach that is suggestive of what was later termed ''Gnosticism'', has recently been seen as a possible response to the Gospel of Thomas, a text that is commonly labelled ''proto-Gnostic''. Scholarship, then, is currently exploring the relationship in the [[Early Christianity|Early Church]] between mystical speculation and experience on the one hand and the search for church order on the other, by analyzing new-found texts, by subjecting canonical texts to further scrutiny, and by an examination of the passage of New Testament texts to canonical status.
====Catholic interpretation====
[[File:View of saint Peter basilica from a roof.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[St. Peter's Basilica]], [[Vatican City]], the largest church in the world and a symbol of the [[Catholic Church]]]]{{Main|Catholic theology of Scripture}}
In antiquity, two schools of exegesis developed in [[Alexandria]] and [[School of Antioch|Antioch]]. Alexandrine interpretation, exemplified by [[Origen]], tended to read Scripture [[allegory|allegorically]], while Antiochene interpretation adhered to the literal sense, holding that other meanings (called ''[[theoria]]'') could only be accepted if based on the literal meaning.<ref>Kelly. ''Early Christian Doctrines''. pp. 69–78.</ref>
[[Catholic Church|Catholic]] theology distinguishes two senses of scripture: the literal and the spiritual.<ref>Catechism of the Catholic Church, [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#III, ''The Holy Spirit, Interpreter of Scripture'' § 115–118]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325191945/http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#III |date=25 March 2015 }}</ref>
The ''literal'' sense of understanding scripture is the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture. The ''spiritual'' sense is further subdivided into:
* The ''allegorical'' sense, which includes [[Typology (theology)|typology]]. An example would be the [[Passage of the Red Sea|parting of the Red Sea]] being understood as a "type" (sign) of baptism.{{Bibleref2c|1Cor|10:2}}
* The ''[[moral]]'' sense, which understands the scripture to contain some ethical teaching.
* The ''[[anagoge|anagogical]]'' sense, which applies to [[eschatology]], eternity and the [[Apocalypse|consummation of the world]]
Regarding [[exegesis]], following the rules of sound interpretation, Catholic theology holds:
* The injunction that all other senses of sacred scripture are based on the ''literal''<ref>Thomas Aquinas, [http://www.newadvent.org/summa/100110.htm "Whether in Holy Scripture a word may have several senses"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060906114843/http://www.newadvent.org/summa/100110.htm |date=6 September 2006 }}</ref><ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#III §116] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325191945/http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#III |date=25 March 2015 }}</ref>
* That the historicity of the Gospels must be absolutely and constantly held<ref>[[Second Vatican Council]], [http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19651118_dei-verbum_en.html ''Dei Verbum'' (V.19)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531175312/http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19651118_dei-verbum_en.html |date=31 May 2014 }}.</ref>
* That scripture must be read within the "living Tradition of the whole Church"<ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#III "The Holy Spirit, Interpreter of Scripture" § 113]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325191945/http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#III |date=25 March 2015 }}</ref> and
* That "the task of interpretation has been entrusted to the bishops in communion with the successor of Peter, the [[Bishop]] of [[diocese of Rome|Rome]]".<ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a2.htm#III "The Interpretation of the Heritage of Faith" § 85]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403212113/http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a2.htm#III |date=3 April 2015 }}</ref>
====Protestant interpretation====
[[File:Lucas Cranach d.Ä. - Martin Luther, 1528 (Veste Coburg) (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.05|[[Protestants]] believe [[Martin Luther]]'s basic beliefs against the Catholic Church: [[Sola scriptura]] (by Scripture alone), [[Sola fide]] (by faith alone), [[Sola gratia]] (by grace alone), [[Solus Christus]] (through Christ alone) and [[Soli Deo gloria]] (glory to God alone).]]
=====Clarity of Scripture=====
Protestant Christians believe that the Bible is a self-sufficient revelation, the final authority on all Christian doctrine, and [[Revelation|revealed all truth]] necessary for salvation. This concept is known as ''[[sola scriptura]]''.<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w_PHAGr2TfgC&pg=PA15|title=The Shape of Sola Scriptura |author=[[Keith A. Mathison]] |publisher=[[Canon Press]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-885767-74-5|chapter=Introduction |page=15|title-link=The Shape of Sola Scriptura }}</ref> Protestants characteristically believe that ordinary believers may reach an adequate understanding of Scripture because Scripture itself is clear (or "perspicuous"), because of the help of the Holy Spirit, or both. Martin Luther believed that without God's help Scripture would be "enveloped in darkness".<ref name="Foutz" /> He advocated "one definite and simple understanding of Scripture".<ref name="Foutz">{{cite web |last=Foutz |first=Scott David |url=http://www.quodlibet.net/luther.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000414063800/http://www.quodlibet.net/luther.shtml |dead-url=yes |archive-date=14 April 2000 |title=Martin Luther and Scripture |publisher=Quodlibet Journal |accessdate=16 June 2014 }}</ref> [[John Calvin]] wrote, "all who refuse not to follow the Holy Spirit as their guide, find in the Scripture a clear light".<ref>John Calvin, [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/calcom45.vii.iv.iv.html '' Commentaries on the Catholic Epistles'' 2 Peter 3:14–18]</ref> The Second [[Helvetic Republic|Helvetic]] Confession, composed by the pastor of the Reformed church in Zürich (successor to Protestant reformer [[Zwingli]]) was adopted as a declaration of doctrine by most European Reformed churches.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.creeds.net/reformed/helvetic/c02.htm |title=The Second Helvetic Confession, Chapter 2 – Of Interpreting the Holy Scriptures; and of Fathers, Councils, and Traditions |date=11 December 2007 |publisher=Presbyterian Church (U.S.A.) |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071211005549/http://www.creeds.net/reformed/helvetic/c02.htm |archivedate=11 December 2007 |accessdate=1 January 2015 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
=====Original intended meaning of Scripture=====
Protestants stress the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture, the [[historical-grammatical method]].<ref>Sproul. ''Knowing Scripture'', pp. 45–61; Bahnsen, ''[http://www.cmfnow.com/articles/pt173.htm A Reformed Confession Regarding Hermeneutics'' (article 6)''].''</ref> The historical-grammatical method or grammatico-historical method is an effort in [[Biblical hermeneutics]] to find the intended original meaning in the text.<ref name="Elwell565">{{Cite book |publisher=Baker Book House |isbn=978-0-8010-3413-8 |last=Elwell |first=Walter A. |title=Evangelical Dictionary of Theology |location=Grand Rapids, Mich. |year=1984 |page=565|title-link=Evangelical Dictionary of Theology }}</ref> This original intended meaning of the text is drawn out through examination of the passage in light of the grammatical and syntactical aspects, the historical background, the literary genre as well as theological (canonical) considerations.<ref>{{Cite book |publisher=Academie Books |isbn=978-0-310-34160-4 |last=Johnson |first=Elliott |title=Expository hermeneutics : an introduction |location=Grand Rapids Mich. |year=1990}}</ref> The historical-grammatical method distinguishes between the one original meaning and the significance of the text. The significance of the text includes the ensuing use of the text or application. The original passage is seen as having only a single meaning or sense. As Milton S. Terry said: "A fundamental principle in grammatico-historical exposition is that the words and sentences can have but one significance in one and the same connection. The moment we neglect this principle we drift out upon a sea of uncertainty and conjecture."<ref>{{Cite book |publisher=Zondervan Pub. House |last=Terry |first=Milton |title=Biblical hermeneutics : a treatise on the interpretation of the Old and New Testaments |location=Grand Rapids Mich. |year=1974 |page=205}} (1890 edition page 103, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Fy9VAAAAMAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=%22fundamental+principle%22 view1], [https://books.google.com/books?id=Fy9VAAAAMAAJ&focus=searchwithinvolume&q=%22neglect+this+principle%22 view2])</ref> Technically speaking, the grammatical-historical method of interpretation is distinct from the determination of the passage's significance in light of that interpretation. Taken together, both define the term (Biblical) hermeneutics.<ref name="Elwell565" />
Some Protestant interpreters make use of typology.<ref>e.g., in his [http://biblehub.com/commentaries/mhcw/matthew/1.htm commentary on Matthew 1] (§III.1). [[Matthew Henry]] interprets the twin sons of Judah, Phares and Zara, as an allegory of the Gentile and [[Jewish Christians]]. For a contemporary treatment, see Glenny, ''[http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/article_typology_glenny.html Typology: A Summary Of The Present Evangelical Discussion]''.</ref>
===Ecclesiology===
{{Main|Ecclesiology}}
===Eschatology===
{{Main|Christian eschatology}}
[[File:Kohrvirab.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|The 7th-century [[Khor Virap]] monastery in the shadow of [[Mount Ararat]]. [[Armenia]] was the first state to adopt Christianity as the state religion, in AD 301.<ref name="Armenia"/>]]
The end of things, whether the end of an individual life, the end of the age, or the end of the world, broadly speaking is Christian eschatology; the study of the destiny of humans as it is revealed in the Bible. The major issues in Christian eschatology are the [[Great Tribulation|Tribulation]], death and the afterlife, the [[Rapture]], the [[Second Coming]] of Jesus, [[Resurrection of the Dead]], Heaven and Hell, [[Millennialism]], the [[Last Judgment]], the end of the world and the [[New Heavens and New Earth]].
Christians believe that the second coming of Christ will occur at the [[eschatology|end of time]] after a period of severe persecution (the Great Tribulation). All who have died will be [[Resurrection of the dead|resurrected bodily from the dead]] for the Last Judgment. Jesus will fully establish the [[Kingdom of God]] in fulfillment of [[Bible prophecy|scriptural prophecies]].<ref name="res">[[Thomas Aquinas]], [http://www.newadvent.org/summa/5.htm ''Summa Theologicum, Supplementum Tertiae Partis''] questions 69 through 99</ref><ref>{{cite web | last =Calvin | first =John | title =Institutes of the Christian Religion, Book Three, Ch. 25 | website = | publisher =www.reformed.org | date = | url =http://www.reformed.org/books/institutes/books/book3/bk3ch25.html | doi = | accessdate =1 January 2008 }}</ref>
====Death and afterlife====
Most Christians believe that human beings experience divine judgment and are rewarded either with eternal life or [[hell|eternal damnation]]. This includes the [[Last Judgment|general judgement]] at the [[resurrection of the dead]] as well as the belief (held by Catholics,<ref name="CEParticularJudgement">''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', "[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08550a.htm Particular Judgment]".</ref><ref name="Ott">Ott, ''Grundriß der Dogmatik'', p. 566.</ref> Orthodox<ref>David Moser, ''[http://www.orthodox.net/articles/about-prayer-for-the-dead.html What the Orthodox believe concerning prayer for the dead]''.</ref><ref>Ken Collins, ''[http://www.kencollins.com/question-45.htm What Happens to Me When I Die?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080928055816/http://www.kencollins.com/question-45.htm |date=28 September 2008 }}''.</ref> and most Protestants) in a [[particular judgment|judgment particular to the individual soul]] upon physical death.
In Catholicism, those who die in a state of grace, i.e., without any mortal sin separating them from God, but are still imperfectly purified from the effects of sin, undergo purification through the intermediate state of [[purgatory]] to achieve the holiness necessary for entrance into God's presence.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/1999/documents/hf_jp-ii_aud_04081999_en.html |title=Audience of 4 August 1999 |publisher=Vatican.va |date=4 August 1999 |accessdate=19 November 2010}}</ref> Those who have attained this goal are called ''saints'' (Latin ''sanctus'', "holy").<ref>''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', "[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04171a.htm The Communion of Saints]".</ref>
Some Christian groups, such as Seventh-day Adventists, hold to [[Christian mortalism|mortalism]], the belief that the human soul is not naturally immortal, and is unconscious during the intermediate state between bodily death and resurrection. These Christians also hold to [[Annihilationism]], the belief that subsequent to the final judgement, the wicked will cease to exist rather than suffer everlasting torment. Jehovah's Witnesses hold to a similar view.<ref>"The death that Adam brought into the world is spiritual as well as physical, and only those who gain entrance into the Kingdom of God will exist eternally. However, this division will not occur until Armageddon, when all people will be resurrected and given a chance to gain eternal life. In the meantime, "the dead are conscious of nothing." What is God's Purpose for the Earth?" Official Site of Jehovah's Witnesses. ''Watchtower'', 15 July 2002.</ref>
==Worship==
{{Main|Christian worship}}
{{See also|Mass (liturgy)|Reformed worship|Contemporary worship}}
[[File:Thebible33.jpg|upright=1.05|thumb|Samples of [[Catholic]] religious objects—the [[Bible]], a [[crucifix]] and a [[rosary]]]]
[[Justin Martyr]] described 2nd-century Christian [[liturgy]] in his ''[[First Apology]]'' (c. 150) to Emperor [[Antoninus Pius]], and his description remains relevant to the basic structure of Christian liturgical worship:
<blockquote>And on the day called Sunday, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits; then, when the reader has ceased, the [[Presbyter|president]] verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. Then we all rise together and pray, and, as we before said, when our prayer is ended, bread and wine and water are brought, and the president in like manner offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability, and the people assent, saying [[Amen]]; and there is a distribution to each, and a participation of that over which thanks have been given, and to those who are absent a portion is sent by the deacons. And they who are well to do, and willing, give what each thinks fit; and what is collected is deposited with the president, who succours the orphans and widows and those who, through sickness or any other cause, are in want, and those who are in bonds and the strangers sojourning among us, and in a word takes care of all who are in need.<ref name="justin">Justin Martyr, [http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/justinmartyr-firstapology.html ''First Apology''] §LXVII</ref></blockquote>
Thus, as Justin described, Christians assemble for communal worship on Sunday, the day of the resurrection, though other liturgical practices often occur outside this setting. Scripture readings are drawn from the Old and New Testaments, but especially the gospel accounts. Often these are arranged on an [[annual cycle]], using a book called a [[lectionary]]. Instruction is given based on these readings, called a [[sermon]], or homily. There are a variety of congregational [[prayer]]s, including thanksgiving, confession and intercession, which occur throughout the service and take a variety of forms including recited, responsive, silent, or sung. The [[Lord's Prayer]], or Our Father, is regularly prayed.
[[File:Worship-team.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|A modern Protestant worship band leading a contemporary worship session]]
Some groups depart from this traditional liturgical structure. A division is often made between "[[High church|High]]" [[church service]]s, characterized by greater solemnity and ritual, and "[[Low church|Low]]" services, but even within these two categories there is great diversity in forms of worship. [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]] meet on Saturday, while others do not meet on a weekly basis. [[Charismatic movement|Charismatic]] or [[Pentecostal]] congregations may spontaneously feel led by the Holy Spirit to action rather than follow a formal order of service, including spontaneous prayer. [[Society of Friends|Quakers]] sit quietly until moved by the Holy Spirit to speak.
Some [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]] services resemble concerts with [[Christian rock|rock and pop music]], dancing and use of multimedia. For groups which do not recognize a priesthood distinct from ordinary believers the services are generally led by a [[minister of religion|minister]], [[preacher]], or [[pastor]]. Still others may lack any formal leaders, either in principle or by local necessity. Some churches use only [[a cappella]] music, either on principle (for example, many [[Churches of Christ]] object to the use of instruments in worship) or by tradition (as in Orthodoxy).
Nearly all forms of [[churchmanship]] celebrate the [[Eucharist]] (Holy Communion), which consists of a consecrated meal. It is reenacted in accordance with Jesus' instruction at the Last Supper that his followers do in remembrance of him as when he gave his disciples [[Sacramental bread|bread]], saying, "This is my body", and gave them [[sacramental wine|wine]] saying, "This is my blood".<ref>Ignazio Silone, ''Bread and Wine'' (1937).</ref> Some [[Christian denominations]] practice [[closed communion]]. They offer communion to those who are already united in that denomination or sometimes individual church. Catholics restrict participation to their members who are not in a state of [[mortal sin]]. Most other churches practice [[open communion]] since they view communion as a means to unity, rather than an end, and invite all believing Christians to participate.
Worship can be varied for special events like [[baptism]]s or weddings in the service or significant [[Calendar of saints|feast days]]. In the [[Early Christianity|early church]], Christians and those yet to complete initiation would separate for the Eucharistic part of the worship. In many churches today, adults and children will separate for all or some of the service to receive age-appropriate teaching. Such children's worship is often called [[Sunday school]] or [[Sabbath school]] (Sunday schools are often held before rather than during services).
===Sacraments===
{{Main|Sacrament}}
{{See also|Sacraments of the Catholic Church|Anglican sacraments|Lutheran sacraments}}
{{quote box|title=2nd-century description of the [[Eucharist]]
|quote=And this food is called among us ''Eukharistia'' [the Eucharist], of which no one is allowed to partake but the man who believes that the things which we teach are true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins, and unto regeneration, and who is so living as Christ has enjoined. For not as common bread and common drink do we receive these; but in like manner as Jesus Christ our Savior, having been made flesh by the Word of God, had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so likewise have we been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of His word, and from which our blood and flesh by transmutation are nourished, is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh.
|source=[[Justin Martyr]]<ref name=justin />
|align=right
|width=30%
|bgcolor=#BCF5A9}}
In Christian belief and practice, a ''sacrament'' is a [[rite]], instituted by Christ, that confers [[divine grace|grace]], constituting a [[Sacred Mysteries|sacred mystery]]. The term is derived from the [[Latin]] word ''sacramentum'', which was used to translate the Greek word for ''mystery''. Views concerning both which rites are sacramental, and what it means for an act to be a sacrament, vary among Christian denominations and traditions.<ref name="ODCC1435">Cross/Livingstone. ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church''. p. 1435f.</ref>
The most conventional functional definition of a sacrament is that it is an outward sign, instituted by Christ, that conveys an inward, spiritual grace through Christ. The two most widely accepted sacraments are [[Baptism]] and the [[Eucharist]] (or Holy Communion), however, the majority of Christians also recognize five additional sacraments: [[Confirmation (Christian sacrament)|Confirmation]] ([[Chrismation]] in the Orthodox tradition), [[Holy orders]] ([[ordination]]), [[Penance]] (or [[Confession (religion)|Confession]]), [[Anointing of the Sick]] and [[Matrimony]] (see [[Christian views on marriage]]).<ref name="ODCC1435" />
Taken together, these are the [[Sacraments of the Catholic Church|Seven Sacraments]] as recognized by churches in the [[High Church]] tradition—notably [[Sacraments of the Catholic Church|Catholic]], [[Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodox]], [[Independent Catholic Churches|Independent Catholic]], [[Old Catholic]], many [[Anglican sacraments|Anglicans]] and some [[Lutherans]]. Most other denominations and traditions typically affirm only Baptism and Eucharist as sacraments, while some Protestant groups, such as the Quakers, reject sacramental theology.<ref name="ODCC1435" /> [[Christian denominations]], such as [[Baptists]], which believe these rites do not communicate grace, prefer to call Baptism and Holy Communion ''[[Ordinance (Christian)|ordinances]]'' rather than sacraments.
In addition to this, the [[Church of the East]] has two additional sacraments in place of the traditional sacraments of Matrimony and the Anointing of the Sick. These include [[Holy Leaven]] (Melka) and the [[sign of the cross]].<ref name="Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East, Archdiocese of Australia, New Zealand and Lebanon">''Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East, Archdiocese of Australia, New Zealand and Lebanon.''</ref>
<gallery widths="200px" heights="150px">
File:Skondals kyrka 2005.jpg|[[Baptism]], specifically [[infant baptism]], in the [[Lutheran]] tradition
File:Исповедь берн собор.jpg|A penitent [[Sacrament of Penance|confessing]] his sins in a [[Ukrainian Greek Catholic Church|Ukrainian Catholic]] church
File:Methodistcommunion3.jpg|A [[Methodism|Methodist]] minister celebrating the [[Eucharist]]
File:Anglican confirmation in Helsinki.jpg|[[Confirmation]] being administered in an [[Anglican Communion|Anglican]] church
File:Cheirotonia_Presbyter_1.jpeg|[[Ordination]] of a priest in the [[Eastern Orthodox]] tradition
File:Crowning in Syro-Malabar Nasrani Wedding by Mar Gregory Karotemprel.jpg|Crowning during [[Christian views on marriage|Holy Matrimony]] in the [[Syro-Malabar Catholic Church]]
File:2017-04-12--Service of the Sacrament of Holy Unction, on Holy Wednesday.jpg|Service of the Sacrament of [[Anointing of the Sick|Holy Unction]] served on Great and Holy Wednesday
</gallery>
===Liturgical calendar===
{{Main|Liturgical year}}
{{See also|Calendar of saints}}
[[File:Nativity tree2011.jpg|thumb|left|A [[nativity scene|depiction of the Nativity]] with a [[Christmas tree]] backdrop]]
Catholics, Anglicans, Eastern Christians and traditional Protestant communities frame worship around the [[liturgical year]]. The liturgical cycle divides the year into a series of [[season]]s, each with their theological emphases, and modes of prayer, which can be signified by different ways of decorating churches, colours of [[parament]]s and [[vestment]]s for clergy,<ref name="calendar">{{cite web|last1=Fortescue|first1=Adrian|title=Christian Calendar|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03158a.htm|website=The Catholic Encyclopedia.|publisher=Robert Appleton Company|accessdate=18 July 2014|year=1912}}</ref> scriptural readings, themes for preaching and even different traditions and practices often observed personally or in the home.
Western Christian liturgical calendars are based on the cycle of the [[Roman Rite]] of the Catholic Church,<ref name="calendar" /> and Eastern Christians use analogous calendars based on the cycle of their respective [[Rite#Christian|rites]]. Calendars set aside holy days, such as [[Solemnity|solemnities]] which commemorate an event in the life of Jesus, Mary or the [[saint]]s, and periods of [[fasting]], such as [[Lent]] and other pious events such as [[memoria]] or lesser festivals commemorating saints. Christian groups that do not follow a liturgical tradition often retain certain celebrations, such as [[Christmas]], [[Easter]] and [[Pentecost]]: these are the celebrations of Christ's birth, resurrection and the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the Church, respectively. A few denominations make no use of a liturgical calendar.<ref>Hickman. ''Handbook of the Christian Year''.</ref>
===Symbols===
{{Main|Christian symbolism}}
[[File:Nideggen-St.Johannes Baptist249.JPG|thumb|right|upright=1.15|The [[Christian cross|cross]] and the fish are two common symbols of [[Jesus Christ]]. The letters of the Greek word ΙΧΘΥΣ [[Ichthys]] (fish) form an acronym for "Ἰησοῦς Χριστός, Θεοῦ Υἱός, Σωτήρ", which translates into English as "Jesus Christ, God's Son, Savior".]]
Christianity has not generally practiced [[Aniconism in Christianity|aniconism]], the avoidance or prohibition of devotional images, even if early [[Jewish Christian]]s and some modern [[Christian denomination|denomination]]s, invoking the [[Ten Commandments|Decalogue's]] prohibition of [[idolatry]], avoided figures in their symbols.
The [[Christian cross|cross]], today one of the most widely recognized symbols, was used by Christians from the earliest times.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-04/anf04-34.htm |title=ANF04. Fathers of the Third Century: Tertullian, Part Fourth; Minucius Felix; Commodian; Origen, Parts First and Second | Christian Classics Ethereal Library |publisher=Ccel.org |date=1 June 2005 |accessdate=5 May 2009}}</ref><ref>Minucius Felix speaks of the cross of Jesus in its familiar form, likening it to objects with a crossbeam or to a man with arms outstretched in prayer ([http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-04/anf04-34.htm#P5713_906729 Octavius of Minucius Felix], chapter XXIX).</ref> Tertullian, in his book ''De Corona'', tells how it was already a tradition for Christians to trace the sign of the cross on their foreheads.<ref>"At every forward step and movement, at every going in and out, when we put on our clothes and shoes, when we bathe, when we sit at table, when we light the lamps, on couch, on seat, in all the ordinary actions of daily life, we trace upon the forehead the sign." (Tertullian, [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf03.iv.vi.iii.html ''De Corona'', chapter 3])</ref> Although the cross was known to the early Christians, the [[crucifix]] did not appear in use until the 5th century.<ref name="soc">Dilasser. ''The Symbols of the Church''.</ref>
Among the earliest Christian symbols, that of the fish or [[Ichthys]] seems to have ranked first in importance, as seen on monumental sources such as tombs from the first decades of the 2nd century.<ref name="cefish">''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', "[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06083a.htm Symbolism of the Fish]".</ref> Its popularity seemingly arose from the Greek word ''ichthys'' (fish) forming an [[acronym]] for the Greek phrase ''Iesous Christos Theou Yios Soter'' (Ἰησοῦς Χριστός, Θεοῦ Υἱός, Σωτήρ),{{refn|group=note|''Iesous Christos Theou '''H'''yios Soter'' would be a more complete transliteration; in Greek though, the daseia or [[spiritus asper]] was not—commonly—marked in the [[majuscule]] script of the time.}} (Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior), a concise summary of Christian faith.<ref name="cefish" />
Other major Christian symbols include the [[Chi-Rho|chi-rho monogram]], the [[dove]] (symbolic of the Holy Spirit), the sacrificial lamb (representing Christ's sacrifice), the [[vine]] (symbolizing the connection of the Christian with Christ) and many others. These all derive from passages of the New Testament.<ref name="soc"/>
===Baptism===
{{Main|Baptism}}
[[File:Almeida Júnior - Batismo de Jesus, 1895.JPG|thumb|upright=0.9|The baptism of Jesus depicted by [[José Ferraz de Almeida Júnior|Almeida Júnior]]]]
Baptism is the ritual act, with the use of water, by which a person is admitted to membership of the [[Christian Church|Church]]. Beliefs on baptism vary among denominations. Differences occur firstly on whether the act has any spiritual significance. Some, such as the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, as well as Lutherans and Anglicans, hold to the doctrine of [[baptismal regeneration]], which affirms that baptism creates or strengthens a person's faith, and is intimately linked to salvation. Others view baptism as a purely symbolic act, an external public declaration of the inward change which has taken place in the person, but not as spiritually efficacious. Secondly, there are differences of opinion on the methodology of the act. These methods are: by [[Immersion baptism|''immersion'']]; if immersion is total, by ''submersion''; by [[affusion]] (pouring); and by [[aspersion]] (sprinkling). Those who hold the first view may also adhere to the tradition of [[infant baptism]];<ref>"Through Baptism we are freed from sin and reborn as sons of God; we become members of Christ, are incorporated into the Church and made sharers in her mission" ([http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P3G.HTM Catechism of the Catholic Church, 1213] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160722003736/http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG0015/__P3G.HTM |date=22 July 2016 }}); "Holy Baptism is the sacrament by which God adopts us as his children and makes us members of Christ's Body, the Church, and inheritors of the kingdom of God" ([http://anglicansonline.org/basics/catechism.html#Holy Book of Common Prayer, 1979, Episcopal );] "Baptism is the sacrament of initiation and incorporation into the body of Christ" ([http://www.backriverumc.com/userFiles/1257/by_water_and_the_spirit.pdf By Water and The Spirit – The Official United Methodist Understanding of Baptism (PDF)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313053601/http://www.backriverumc.com/userFiles/1257/by_water_and_the_spirit.pdf |date=13 March 2016 }};<br />"As an initiatory rite into membership of the Family of God, baptismal candidates are symbolically purified or washed as their sins have been forgiven and washed away" ([[William H. Brackney]], [http://www.baptisthistory.org/pamphlets/baptism.htm Doing Baptism Baptist Style{{snd}} Believer's Baptism] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100107183031/http://www.baptisthistory.org/pamphlets/baptism.htm |date=7 January 2010 }})</ref> the [[Orthodox Church]]es all practice infant baptism and always baptize by total immersion repeated three times in the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit.<ref>"After the proclamation of faith, the baptismal water is prayed over and blessed as the sign of the goodness of God's creation. The person to be baptized is also prayed over and blessed with sanctified oil as the sign that his creation by God is holy and good. And then, after the solemn proclamation of "Alleluia" (God be praised), the person is immersed three times in the water in the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit" ([http://www.oca.org/OCchapter.asp?SID=2&ID=51 Orthodox Church in America: Baptism).]</ref><ref>"In the Orthodox Church we totally immerse, because such total immersion symbolizes death. What death? The death of the "old, sinful man". After Baptism we are freed from the dominion of sin, even though after Baptism we retain an inclination and tendency toward evil.", Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia, article "[http://www.greekorthodox.org.au/general/faq/faqbaptism Baptism] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140930002357/http://www.greekorthodox.org.au/general/faq/faqbaptism |date=30 September 2014 }}".</ref> The Catholic Church also practices infant baptism,<ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p1s2c1p7.htm#403 403], [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p2s2c1a1.htm 1231, 1233, 1250, 1252].</ref> usually by affusion, and utilizing the [[Trinitarian formula]].<ref>''Catechism of the Catholic Church'' [http://www.vatican.va/archive/ccc_css/archive/catechism/p2s2c1a1.htm#1240 1240].</ref>
===Prayer===
{{Main|Prayer in Christianity}}
Jesus' teaching on prayer in the [[Sermon on the Mount]] displays a distinct lack of interest in the external aspects of prayer. A concern with the techniques of prayer is condemned as 'pagan', and instead a simple trust in God's fatherly goodness is encouraged.{{bibleref2c|Mat.|6:5–15}} Elsewhere in the New Testament this same freedom of access to God is also emphasized.{{bibleref2c|Phil.|4:6}}{{bibleref2c|Jam.|5:13–19}} This confident position should be understood in light of Christian belief in the unique relationship between the believer and Christ through the indwelling of the Holy Spirit.<ref name="NBDprayer">{{cite encyclopedia |editor=Alexander, T. D. |editor2=Rosner, B. S |year=2001 |title =Prayer |encyclopedia= New Dictionary of Biblical Theology|publisher= Intervarsity Press |location=Downers Grove, IL |id= }}</ref>
In subsequent Christian traditions, certain physical gestures are emphasized, including medieval gestures such as [[genuflection]] or making the [[sign of the cross]]. [[Kneeling]], bowing and [[prostration]]s (see also [[poklon]]) are often practiced in more traditional branches of Christianity. Frequently in Western Christianity the hands are placed palms together and forward as in the feudal [[commendation ceremony]]. At other times the older [[orans]] posture may be used, with palms up and elbows in.
''Intercessory prayer'' is prayer offered for the benefit of other people. There are many intercessory prayers recorded in the Bible, including prayers of the [[Apostle Peter]] on behalf of sick persons{{bibleref2c|Acts|9:40}} and by [[prophet]]s of the Old Testament in favor of other people.{{bibleref2c|1Ki|17:19–22}} In the [[Epistle of James]], no distinction is made between the intercessory prayer offered by ordinary believers and the prominent Old Testament prophet [[Elijah]].{{bibleref2c|Jam|5:16–18}} The effectiveness of prayer in Christianity derives from the power of God rather than the status of the one praying.<ref name="NBDprayer"/>
The ancient church, in both [[Eastern Christianity]] and [[Western Christianity]], developed a tradition of asking for the [[intercession of saints|intercession of (deceased) saints]], and this remains the practice of most [[Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodox]], [[Catholic Church|Catholic]], and some [[Anglican]] churches. Churches of the Protestant Reformation, however, rejected prayer to the saints, largely on the basis of the sole mediatorship of Christ.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |author1=Ferguson, S. B. |author2=Packer, J. |last-author-amp=yes |year=1988 |title =Saints |encyclopedia= New Dictionary of Theology|publisher= Intervarsity Press |location=Downers Grove, IL |id= }}</ref> The reformer [[Huldrych Zwingli]] admitted that he had offered prayers to the saints until his reading of the Bible convinced him that this was [[idolatry in Christianity|idolatrous]].<ref>Madeleine Gray, ''The Protestant Reformation'', (Sussex Academic Press, 2003), page 140.</ref>
According to the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]: "Prayer is the raising of one's mind and heart to God or the requesting of good things from God."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.va/archive/catechism/p4s1.htm |title=Catechism of the Catholic Church: Part Four – Christian Prayer |publisher=Va |date= |accessdate=19 November 2010 }}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> The [[Book of Common Prayer]] in the Anglican tradition is a guide which provides a set order for church services, containing set prayers, scripture readings, and hymns or sung Psalms.
==History==
{{Main|History of Christianity}}
===Early Church and Christological Councils===
{{Main|Origins of Christianity|Early Christianity|First seven Ecumenical Councils}}
[[File:Inside of Saint Ananias.jpg|thumb|upright=1.05|right|[[House of Saint Ananias|Chapel of Saint Ananias]], [[Damascus]], [[Syria]], an early example of a Christian house of worship; built in the 1st century AD]]
[[File:Ephesus IchthysCrop.jpg|thumb|upright=1.05|right|An early circular [[ichthys]] symbol, created by combining the Greek letters [[ΙΧΘΥΣ]] into a wheel. [[Ephesus]], Asia Minor.]]
[[File:Mor-mattai.png|thumb|right|upright=1.05|The [[Mar Mattai monastery|Monastery of St. Matthew]], located atop [[Mount Alfaf]] in [[northern Iraq]], is recognized as one of the oldest Christian monasteries in existence.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cso-france.voila.net/Monastere_Saint_Mattai.htm|language=fr|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303004713/http://cso-france.voila.net/Monastere_Saint_Mattai.htm|title=Monastère de Mor Mattai - Mossul - Irak|archivedate=3 March 2014}}</ref>]]
[[File:Kadisha Valley cross.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.05|[[Kadisha Valley]], [[Lebanon]], home to some of the earliest Christian monasteries in the world]]
Christianity grew out of [[Judaism]]<ref name="Benko1984"/><ref name="Bergen2000"/><ref name="Cory2015"/> as a [[Second Temple Judaism|Second Temple Judaic]] sect in the 1st century<ref name="Robinson">{{harvnb|Robinson|2000|p=229}}</ref><ref name="Esler">Esler. ''The Early Christian World''. p. 157f.</ref> in the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] province of [[Judea (Roman province)|Judea]]. Other religious influences of [[early Christianity]] are [[Zoroastrianism]] and [[Gnosticism]].<ref group="note" name="name">The term "Christian" ({{Lang-el|Χριστιανός}}) was first used in reference to Jesus's [[Disciple (Christianity)|disciples]] in the city of [[Antioch]]{{bibleref2c|Acts|11:26}} about 44 AD, meaning "followers of Christ". The name was given by the non-Jewish inhabitants of Antioch to the disciples of Jesus. In the New Testament, the names by which the disciples were known among themselves were "brethren", "the faithful", "elect", "saints" and "believers". The earliest recorded use of the term "Christianity" ({{Lang-el|Χριστιανισμός|links=no}}) was by [[Ignatius of Antioch]], around 100 AD.{{ref|Elwell/Comfort. ''Tyndale Bible Dictionary'', pp. 266, 828.|name="Christian"}}</ref><ref name="Robinson"/><ref name="Esler"/><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.academia.edu/8616877|title=Zoroastrianism: The Iranian Roots of Christianity|first=Bryan|last=Rennie}}</ref> John Bowker states that Christian ideas such as "angels, the end of the world, a final judgment, the resurrection and heaven and hell received form and substance from ... Zoroastrian beliefs".<ref>{{cite book |title= World Religions: The Great Faiths Explored & Explained |edition= |last= Bowker|first= John|authorlink= John Bowker (theologian)|year= 1997|publisher= Dorling Kindersley Limited|location= London|isbn= 978-0-7894-1439-7|page= 13}}</ref> Its earliest development took place under the leadership of the remaining [[Twelve Apostles]], particularly [[Saint Peter]], and [[Paul the Apostle]], followed by the early [[bishop]]s, whom Christians consider the [[apostolic succession|successors of the Apostles]].
According to the Christian scriptures, Christians were from the beginning subject to [[Persecution of Christians|persecution]] by some Jewish and Roman religious authorities, who disagreed with the apostles' teachings (See [[Split of early Christianity and Judaism]]). This involved punishments, including death, for Christians such as [[Stephen]]{{bibleref2c|Acts|7:59}} and [[James, son of Zebedee]].{{bibleref2c|Acts|12:2}} Larger-scale persecutions followed at the hands of the authorities of the Roman Empire, first in the year 64, when [[Emperor Nero]] blamed them for the [[Great Fire of Rome]].{{citation Needed|date=October 2018}} According to Church tradition, it was under Nero's persecution that early Church leaders Peter and [[Paul of Tarsus]] were each martyred in Rome.{{citation Needed|date=October 2018}}
Further widespread [[Persecution of early Christians by the Romans|persecutions]] of the Church occurred under nine subsequent Roman emperors, most intensely under [[Decius]] and [[Diocletian]]. From the year 150, Christian teachers began to produce theological and apologetic works aimed at defending the faith. These authors are known as the [[Church Fathers]], and study of them is called [[Patristics]]. Notable early Fathers include [[Ignatius of Antioch]], [[Polycarp]], [[Justin Martyr]], [[Irenaeus]], [[Tertullian]], [[Clement of Alexandria]] and [[Origen]]. However, [[Armenia]] is considered the first nation to accept Christianity in AD 301.<ref name="Armenia">{{cite web|last=Gill|first=N.S.|title=Which Nation First Adopted Christianity?|url=http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/neareast/f/1stchristian.htm|publisher=About.com|accessdate=8 October 2011|quote="Armenia is considered the first nation to have adopted Christianity as the state religion in a traditional date of c. A.D. 301."}}</ref><ref name="CIA">{{cite web |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]]|title=The World Factbook: Armenia|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/am.html|accessdate =8 October 2011}}</ref><ref name="almanac">{{cite book |last=Brunner|first=Borgna|title=Time Almanac with Information Please 2007|page=685|isbn=978-1-933405-49-0 |year=2006 |publisher=Time Home Entertainment |location=New York}}</ref>
King Trdat IV made Christianity the state religion in Armenia between 301 and 314. It was not an entirely new religion in Armenia. It penetrated into the country from at least the third century but may have been present even earlier.<ref name="maarten">{{cite journal|last1=Theo Maarten van Lint|title=The Formation of Armenian Identity in the First Millenium|journal=Church History and Religious Culture|date=2009|volume= 89| issue = 1/3|page=269}}</ref>
====End of Roman persecution under Emperor Constantine (AD 313)====
[[File:Jesus-Christ-from-Hagia-Sophia.jpg|thumb|upright=1.05|An example of Byzantine pictorial art, the [[Deësis]] mosaic at the [[Hagia Sophia#Deësis mosaic|Hagia Sophia]] in [[Constantinople]]]]
State persecution ceased in the 4th century, when [[Constantine I]] issued an [[Edict of Milan|edict of toleration]] in 313. At that point, Christianity was still a minority belief comprising perhaps only five percent of the Roman population.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Christianity: A Global History|last=Chidester|first=David|publisher=HarperOne|year=2000|isbn=|location=|pages=91}}</ref> Influenced by his adviser [[Mardonius (philosopher)|Mardonius]], Constantine's nephew [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]] unsuccessfully tried to suppress Christianity.<ref name="Ricciotti">{{harvnb|Ricciotti|1999|p=}}</ref> On 27 February 380, Emperor [[Theodosius I]] enacted a law establishing [[First Council of Nicaea|Nicene]] Christianity as the [[state church of the Roman Empire]].<ref>[http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/theodcodeXVI.html Theodosian Code XVI.i.2], in: Bettenson. ''Documents of the Christian Church''. p. 31.</ref> As soon as it became connected to the state, Christianity grew wealthy; the Church solicited donations from the rich and could now own land.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Empires in World History: Power and the Politics of Difference|last=Burbank|first=Jane|last2=Copper|first2=Frederick|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2010|isbn=|location=Princeton|pages=64}}</ref> From at least the 4th century, Christianity has played a prominent role in the [[history of Western civilization|shaping of Western civilization]].<ref name="Orlandis">Orlandis, ''A Short History of the Catholic Church'' (1993), preface.</ref>
Constantine was also instrumental in the convocation of the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in 325, which sought to address the [[Arianism|Arian heresy]] and formulated the [[Nicene Creed]], which is still used by the [[Catholic Church]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], [[Anglican Communion]] and many [[Protestant]] churches.<ref name="UMC—Our Common Heritage as Christians"/> Nicaea was the first of a series of [[Ecumenical council|Ecumenical (worldwide) Councils]] which formally defined critical elements of the theology of the Church, notably concerning [[Christology]].<ref name="McManners37">McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', p. 37f.</ref> The [[Assyrian Church of the East]] did not accept the third and following Ecumenical Councils, and are still separate today.
The presence of Christianity in Africa began in the middle of the 1st century in [[Egypt]], and by the end of the 2nd century in the region around [[Carthage]]. [[Mark the Evangelist]] is claimed to have started the [[Church of Alexandria]] in about AD 43; various later churches and denominations claim this as their own legacy including the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria]].<ref>[[Eusebius of Caesarea]], the author of ''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Ecclesiastical History]]'' in the 4th century, states that St. Mark came to Egypt in the first or third year of the reign of Emperor Claudius, i.e. 41 or 43 AD. "Two Thousand years of Coptic Christianity" Otto F.A. Meinardus p28.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bethel.edu/~letnie/AfricanChristianity/WesternNorthAfricaHomepage.html |title=A History of the Christian Church in Western North Africa |author=Neil Lettinga |date= |website= |publisher= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20010730174045/http://www.bethel.edu/~letnie/AfricanChristianity/WesternNorthAfricaHomepage.html |archivedate=30 July 2001 |deadurl=yes}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.allaboutreligion.org/history-of-christianity-in-africa-faq.htm |title=Allaboutreligion.org |publisher=Allaboutreligion.org |date= |accessdate=19 November 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20101116113632/https://allaboutreligion.org/history-of-christianity-in-africa-faq.htm |archivedate=16 November 2010 |df=dmy }}</ref> Important Africans who influenced the early development of Christianity include [[Tertullian]], [[Clement of Alexandria]], [[Origen of Alexandria]], [[Cyprian]], [[Athanasius]] and [[Augustine of Hippo]]. The later rise of [[Islam]] in [[North Africa]] reduced the size and numbers of Christian congregations, leaving in large numbers only the [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic Church]] in Egypt, the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]] in the [[Horn of Africa]] and the [[Christianity in Sudan|Nubian Church]] in the Sudan (Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia).
In terms of prosperity and cultural life, the [[Byzantine Empire]] was one of the peaks in [[Christian history]] and [[Christian civilization]],<ref>{{harvnb|Cameron|2006|pp=42}}.</ref> and [[Constantinople]] remained the leading city of the [[Christian world]] in size, wealth and culture.<ref>{{harvnb|Cameron|2006|pp=47}}.</ref> [[Greek scholars in the Renaissance|There was a renewed interest in classical Greek philosophy]], as well as an increase in literary output in vernacular Greek.<ref name="Browning-1992-190-218">{{harvnb|Browning|1992|pp=198–208}}.</ref> Byzantine art and literature held a pre-eminent place in [[Europe]], and the cultural impact of [[Byzantine art]] on the west during this period was enormous and of long lasting significance.<ref name="Browning-1992-218">{{harvnb|Browning|1992|p=218}}.</ref>
===Early Middle Ages===
With the decline and fall of the Roman Empire in the west, the [[papacy]] became a political player, first visible in [[Pope Leo I|Pope Leo]]'s diplomatic dealings with [[Attila the Hun|Huns]] and [[Vandals]].<ref name = "Gonzalez-p238"/> The church also entered into a long period of missionary activity and expansion among the various tribes. While [[Arianism|Arianists]] instituted the death penalty for practicing pagans (see [[Massacre of Verden]] as example), what would later become [[Catholicism]] also spread among the [[Hungarians]], the [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]],<ref name = "Gonzalez-p238">Gonzalez, ''The Story of Christianity'', pp. 238–42.</ref> the [[Celts|Celtic]], the [[Baltic peoples|Baltic]] and some [[Slavic peoples]]. Christianity has been an important part of the shaping of [[Western civilization]], at least since the 4th century.<ref name="Cambridge University Historical Series"/><ref name="Caltron J.H Hayas"/><ref name="Orlandis"/>
Around 500, [[St. Benedict]] set out his [[Monastic Rule]], establishing a system of regulations for the foundation and running of [[monasteries]].<ref name = "Gonzalez-p238"/> [[Monasticism]] became a powerful force throughout Europe,<ref name = "Gonzalez-p238"/> and gave rise to many early centers of learning, most famously in [[Ireland]], [[Scotland]] and [[Gaul]], contributing to the [[Carolingian Renaissance]] of the 9th century.
In the 7th century [[Muslim conquest of Syria|Muslims conquered Syria]] (including [[Jerusalem]]), [[North Africa]] and [[Spain]], converting some of the Christian population to [[Islam]], and placing the rest under a separate [[Dhimmi|legal status]]. Part of the Muslims' success was due to the exhaustion of the [[Byzantine empire]] in its decades long conflict with [[Persia]].<ref>Mullin, 2008, p. 88.</ref> Beginning in the 8th century, with the rise of [[Carolingian]] leaders, the papacy began to find greater political support in the [[Frankish Kingdom]].<ref>Mullin, 2008, p. 93–4.</ref>
The Middle Ages brought about major changes within the church. [[Pope Gregory the Great]] dramatically reformed [[Ecclesiastical polity|ecclesiastical structure]] and administration.<ref>Gonzalez, ''The Story of Christianity'', pp. 244–47.</ref> In the early 8th century, [[iconoclasm]] became a divisive issue, when it was sponsored by the [[Byzantium|Byzantine]] emperors. The [[Second Council of Nicaea|Second Ecumenical Council of Nicaea]] (787) finally pronounced in favor of icons.<ref>Gonzalez, ''The Story of Christianity'', p. 260.</ref> In the early 10th century, Western Christian monasticism was further rejuvenated through the leadership of the great Benedictine monastery of [[Cluny Abbey|Cluny]].<ref>Gonzalez, ''The Story of Christianity'', pp. 278–81.</ref>
Hebraism, like Hellenism, has been an all-important factor in the development of Western Civilization; Judaism, as the precursor of Christianity, has indirectly had much to do with shaping the ideals and morality of western nations since the Christian era.<ref name="Caltron J.H Hayas" />
===High and Late Middle Ages===
[[File:Passages d'outremer Fr5594, fol. 19r, Concile de Clermont.jpg|thumb|left|[[Pope Urban II]] at the [[Council of Clermont]], where he preached the [[First Crusade]]]]
In the west, from the 11th century onward, older cathedral schools developed into universities (see [[University of Oxford]], [[University of Paris]] and [[University of Bologna]].) The traditional [[medieval universities]]—evolved from Catholic and Protestant church schools—then established specialized academic structures for properly educating greater numbers of students as [[profession]]als. Prof. Walter Rüegg, editor of ''[[A History of the University in Europe]]'', reports that universities then only trained students to become clerics, lawyers, civil servants and physicians.<ref>Rudy, ''The Universities of Europe, 1100–1914'', p. 40</ref>
Originally teaching only [[theology]], [[universities]] steadily added subjects including [[medicine]], [[philosophy]] and [[law]], becoming the direct ancestors of modern institutions of learning.<ref>Gonzalez, ''The Story of Christianity'', pp. 305, 312, 314f..</ref>
The university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the [[History of Christianity|Medieval Christian]] setting.<ref name="Rüegg, Walter 1992, pp. XIX">Rüegg, Walter: "Foreword. The University as a European Institution", in: ''A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages'', Cambridge University Press, 1992, {{ISBN|0-521-36105-2}}, pp. XIX–XX</ref><ref name=verger1999>{{cite book |last=Verger |first=Jacques |date=1999 |authorlink=:fr:Jacques Verger|title=Culture, enseignement et société en Occident aux XIIe et XIIIe siècles |edition=1st |trans-title=|language=French |location= |publisher=Presses universitaires de Rennes in Rennes |isbn=978-2868473448 |url=https://openlibrary.org/works/OL822497W |accessdate=17 June 2014 |ref=harv}}</ref> Prior to the establishment of universities, European higher education took place for hundreds of years in Christian [[cathedral school]]s or [[monastic school]]s (''Scholae monasticae''), in which [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s taught classes; evidence of these immediate forerunners of the later university at many places dates back to the 6th century AD.<ref>Riché, Pierre (1978): "Education and Culture in the Barbarian West: From the Sixth through the Eighth Century", Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, {{ISBN|0-87249-376-8}}, pp. 126–7, 282–98</ref>
Accompanying the rise of the "new towns" throughout Europe, [[mendicant order]]s were founded, bringing the [[Consecrated life (Catholic Church)|consecrated religious life]] out of the monastery and into the new urban setting. The two principal mendicant movements were the [[Franciscans]]<ref>Gonzalez, ''The Story of Christianity'', pp. 303–07, 310f., 384–86.</ref> and the [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]]<ref>Gonzalez, ''The Story of Christianity'', pp. 305, 310f., 316f.</ref> founded by [[Francis of Assisi|St. Francis]] and [[St. Dominic]] respectively. Both orders made significant contributions to the development of the great universities of Europe. Another new order were the [[Cistercians]], whose large isolated monasteries spearheaded the settlement of former wilderness areas. In this period church building and ecclesiastical architecture reached new heights, culminating in the orders of [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] and [[Gothic architecture]] and the building of the great European cathedrals.<ref>Gonzalez, ''The Story of Christianity'', pp. 321–23, 365f.</ref>
From 1095 under the pontificate of [[Urban II]], the [[Crusades]] were launched.<ref>Gonzalez, ''The Story of Christianity'', pp. 292–300.</ref> These were a series of military campaigns in the [[Holy Land]] and elsewhere, initiated in response to pleas from the Byzantine Emperor [[Alexios I]] for aid against [[Turkish people|Turkish]] expansion. The Crusades ultimately failed to stifle Islamic aggression and even contributed to Christian enmity with the sacking of [[Constantinople]] during the [[Fourth Crusade]].<ref>Riley-Smith. ''The Oxford History of the Crusades''.</ref>
Over a period stretching from the 7th to the 13th century, the Christian Church underwent gradual alienation, resulting in a [[East-West Schism|schism]] dividing it into a so-called Latin or [[Western Christian]] branch, the Catholic Church,<ref>The Western Church was called Latin at the time by the Eastern Christians and non Christians due to its conducting of its rituals and affairs in the Latin language</ref> and an [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern]], largely Greek, branch, the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Church]]. These two churches disagree on a number of administrative, liturgical and doctrinal issues, most notably [[papal primacy|papal primacy of jurisdiction]].<ref name="Orthodox Information Centre-Great Schism">{{cite web|url = http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/general/greatschism.aspx| title = The Great Schism: The Estrangement of Eastern and Western Christendom|publisher = Orthodox Information Centre|accessdate = 26 May 2007}}</ref><ref name="SandSp91">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 91</ref> The [[Second Council of Lyon]] (1274) and the [[Council of Florence]] (1439) attempted to reunite the churches, but in both cases the Eastern Orthodox refused to implement the decisions and the two principal churches remain in schism to the present day. However, the Catholic Church has achieved union with various [[Eastern Catholic Churches|smaller eastern churches]].
In the thirteenth century a new emphasis on Jesus' suffering, exemplified by the Franciscans' preaching, had the consequence of turning worshippers' attention towards Jews, on whom [[Jewish deicide|Christians had placed the blame for Jesus' death]]. Christianity's limited tolerance of Jews was not new—Augustine of Hippo had said that Jews should not be allowed to enjoy the citizenship that Christians took for granted—but the growing antipathy towards Jews was a factor that led to [[Edict of Expulsion|the expulsion of Jews from England in 1290]], the first of many such expulsions in Europe.<ref name="diarmaid">{{cite book |last=MacCulloch |first=Diarmaid |title=Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years |publisher=Penguin |date=2011 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=7x4m20TRYzQC|isbn=9781101189993 }}</ref><ref name="telushkin">{{cite book |last=Telushkin |first=Joseph |title=Jewish Literacy |publisher=HarperCollins |page=192–193 |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-688-08506-3 }}</ref>
Beginning around 1184, following the crusade against the [[Cathars|Cathar]] heresy,<ref>Gonzalez, ''The Story of Christianity'', pp. 300, 304–05.</ref> various institutions, broadly referred to as the [[Inquisition]], were established with the aim of suppressing [[heresy]] and securing religious and doctrinal unity within Christianity through [[religious conversion|conversion]] and prosecution.<ref>Gonzalez, ''The Story of Christianity'', pp. 310, 383, 385, 391.</ref>
===Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation===
[[File:95Thesen.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.05|[[Martin Luther]] started the Protestant Reformation in 1517 with the [[The Ninety-Five Theses|Ninety-Five Theses]], going against the Catholic interpretation of the Bible.]]
{{Main|Protestant Reformation|Counter-Reformation}}
{{See also|European wars of religion}}
15th-century [[Renaissance]] brought about a renewed interest in ancient and classical learning. Another major schism, the [[Reformation]], resulted in the splintering of the [[Western Christianity|Western Christendom]] into several branches.<ref name="Simon-120-121">Simon. ''Great Ages of Man: The Reformation''. p. 7.</ref> [[Martin Luther]] in 1517 [[95 Theses|protested]] against the sale of [[indulgences]] and soon moved on to deny several key points of Catholic [[doctrine]].<ref name="Simon">Simon. ''Great Ages of Man: The Reformation''. pp. 39, 55–61.</ref>
Other reformers like [[Huldrych Zwingli|Zwingli]], [[Johannes Oecolampadius|Oecolampadius]], [[John Calvin|Calvin]], [[John Knox|Knox]] and [[Jacobus Arminius|Arminius]] further criticized Catholic teaching and worship. These challenges developed into the movement called [[Protestantism]], which repudiated the [[papal primacy|primacy of the pope]], the role of tradition, the [[Catholic sacraments|seven sacraments]] and other doctrines and practices.<ref name="Simon" /> The [[English Reformation|Reformation in England]] began in 1534, when [[Henry VIII of England|King Henry VIII]] had himself [[Act of Supremacy|declared head]] of the [[Church of England]]. Beginning in 1536, the monasteries throughout England, Wales and Ireland were [[Dissolution of the monasteries|dissolved]].<ref name="Schama">Schama. ''A History of Britain''. pp. 306–10.</ref>
[[Thomas Müntzer]], [[Andreas Karlstadt]] and other theologians perceived both the Catholic Church and the confessions of the [[Magisterial Reformation]] as corrupted. Their activity brought about the [[Radical Reformation]], which gave birth to various [[Anabaptist]] denominations.
[[File:Michelangelo's Pieta 5450 cropncleaned edit.jpg|thumb|upright=1.05|[[Michelangelo]]'s ''[[Michelangelo's Pietà|Pietà]]'' in [[St. Peter's Basilica]], The Catholic Church was among the patronages of the [[Renaissance]].<ref name="natgeo 254">National Geographic, 254.</ref><ref>Jensen, De Lamar (1992), ''Renaissance Europe'', {{ISBN|0-395-88947-2}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Levey|first=Michael|title=Early Renaissance|publisher=Penguin Books|year=1967}}</ref>]]
Partly in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Church engaged in a substantial process of reform and renewal, known as the [[Counter-Reformation]] or Catholic Reform.<ref name="Bokenkotter242">Bokenkotter, ''A Concise History of the Catholic Church'', pp. 242–44.</ref> The [[Council of Trent]] clarified and reasserted Catholic doctrine. During the following centuries, competition between Catholicism and Protestantism became deeply entangled with political struggles among European states.<ref name="Simon3">Simon. ''Great Ages of Man: The Reformation''. pp. 109–120.</ref>
Meanwhile, the discovery of America by [[Christopher Columbus]] in 1492 brought about a new wave of missionary activity. Partly from missionary zeal, but under the impetus of [[Colonialism|colonial expansion]] by the European powers, Christianity spread to the Americas, Oceania, [[East Asia]] and [[sub-Saharan Africa]].
Throughout Europe, the divides caused by the Reformation led to outbreaks of [[religious violence]] and the establishment of separate state churches in Europe. [[Lutheranism]] spread into northern, central and eastern parts of present-day Germany, [[Livonia]] and Scandinavia. [[Anglicanism]] was established in England in 1534. [[Calvinism]] and its varieties (such as [[Presbyterianism]]) were introduced in [[Scotland]], the [[Netherlands]], [[Hungary]], [[Switzerland]] and [[France]]. [[Arminianism]] gained followers in the Netherlands and [[Frisia]]. Ultimately, these differences led to the outbreak of [[religious war|conflicts]] in which religion played a key factor. The [[Thirty Years' War]], the [[English Civil War]] and the [[French Wars of Religion]] are prominent examples. These events intensified the [[Christian debate on persecution and toleration]].<ref>A general overview about the English discussion is given in Coffey, ''Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England 1558–1689''.</ref>
===Post-Enlightenment===
[[File:Madonna and Child, Kakure Kirishitan.jpg|thumb|upright=1.05|right|A depiction of [[Madonna and Child]] in a 19th-century [[Kakure Kirishitan]] [[Ukiyo-e|Japanese woodcut]]]]
In the era known as the [[Great Divergence]], when in the West the [[Age of Enlightenment]] and the [[Scientific revolution]] brought about great societal changes, Christianity was confronted with various forms of [[skepticism]] and with certain modern [[Ideology|political ideologies]] such as versions of [[socialism]] and [[liberalism]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Novak|first=Michael|title=Catholic social thought and liberal institutions: Freedom with justice|year=1988|publisher=Transaction|isbn=978-0-88738-763-0|page=63|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7pb1GDmxA1UC&pg=PA63}}</ref> Events ranged from mere [[anti-clericalism]] to violent outbursts against Christianity such as the [[Dechristianisation of France during the French Revolution|Dechristianisation]] during the [[French Revolution]],<ref>Mortimer Chambers, ''The Western Experience'' (vol. 2) chapter 21.</ref> the [[Spanish Civil War]] and certain [[Marxism|Marxist]] movements, especially [[Russian Revolution (1917)|the Russian Revolution]] and the [[persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union]] under [[state atheism]].<ref>Religion and the State in Russia and China: Suppression, Survival, and Revival, by Christopher Marsh, page 47. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2011.</ref><ref>Inside Central Asia: A Political and Cultural History, by Dilip Hiro. Penguin, 2009.</ref><ref name="Adappur2000">{{cite book|last=Adappur|first=Abraham|title=Religion and the Cultural Crisis in India and the West|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=44DYAAAAMAAJ|year=2000|publisher=Intercultural Publications|language=English |isbn=978-81-85574-47-9|quote=Forced Conversion under Atheistic Regimes: It might be added that the most modern example of forced "conversions" came not from any theocratic state, but from a professedly atheist government — that of the Soviet Union under the Communists.}}</ref><ref>Geoffrey Blainey; A Short History of Christianity; Viking; 2011; p.494"</ref>
Especially pressing in Europe was the formation of [[nation states]] after the [[Napoleonic era]]. In all European countries, different Christian denominations found themselves in competition, to greater or lesser extents, with each other and with the state. Variables are the relative sizes of the denominations and the religious, political and ideological orientation of the state. Urs Altermatt of the [[University of Fribourg]], looking specifically at Catholicisms in Europe, identifies four models for the European nations. In traditionally Catholic-majority countries such as [[Belgium]], [[Spain]] and to some extent [[Austria]], religious and national communities are more or less identical. Cultural symbiosis and separation are found in [[Poland]], [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]] and [[Switzerland]], all countries with competing denominations. Competition is found in [[Germany]], the [[Netherlands]] and again Switzerland, all countries with minority Catholic populations who to a greater or lesser extent did identify with the nation. Finally, separation between religion (again, specifically Catholicism) and the state is found to a great degree in France and [[Italy]], countries where the state actively opposed itself to the authority of the Catholic Church.<ref>{{cite book|last=Altermatt|first=Urs|title=Religion und Nation: Katholizismen im Europa des 19. und 20. Jahrhundert|year=2007|publisher=Kohlhammer|isbn=978-3-17-019977-4|pages=15–34|editor=Urs Altermatt, Franziska Metzger|language=German|chapter=Katholizismus und Nation: Vier Modelle in europäisch-vergleichender Perspektive}}</ref>
The combined factors of the formation of nation states and [[ultramontanism]], especially in Germany and the Netherlands but also in [[England]] (to a much lesser extent<ref>{{cite book|last=Heimann|first=Mary|title=Catholic Devotion in Victorian England|year=1995|publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn=978-0-19-820597-5|pages=165–73}}</ref>), often forced Catholic churches, organizations and believers to choose between the national demands of the state and the authority of the Church, specifically the papacy. This conflict came to a head in the [[First Vatican Council]], and in Germany would lead directly to the [[Kulturkampf]], where liberals and Protestants under the leadership of [[Otto von Bismarck|Bismarck]] managed to severely restrict Catholic expression and organization.
Christian commitment in Europe dropped as modernity and secularism came into their own in Europe,<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-12811197 | work=BBC News | title=Religion may become extinct in nine nations, study says | date=22 March 2011}}</ref> particularly in the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Estonia]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.ttcn.ne.jp/~honkawa/9460.html |title=図録▽世界各国の宗教 |publisher=.ttcn.ne.jp |date= |accessdate=17 August 2012}}</ref> while religious commitments in America have been generally high in comparison to Europe. The late 20th century has shown the shift of Christian adherence to the Third World and southern hemisphere in general, with the [[western civilization]] no longer the chief standard bearer of Christianity. Approximately 7.1 to 10% of [[Arabs]] are [[Arab Christians and Arabic-speaking Christians|Christians]],<ref name=Pacini>{{cite book |last=Fargues|first=Philippe |authorlink= |title=Christian Communities in the Middle East |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |doi= |isbn=978-0-19-829388-0 |chapter=A Demographic Perspective |editor1-last=Pacini|editor1-first=Andrea}}</ref> most prevalent in Egypt, Syria and Lebanon.
==Demographics==
{{Main|Christianity by country|Christian population growth|Christian denominations by membership}}
{{See also|Christendom|Christian state}}
With around 2.4 billion adherents,<ref name="World" /><ref name="gordonconwell.edu" /> split into three main branches of Catholic, Protestant and Eastern Orthodox, Christianity is the [[major religious groups|world's largest religion]].<ref name="PewDec2012" /> The Christian share of the world's population has stood at around 33% for the last hundred years, which means that one in three persons on earth are Christians. This masks a major shift in the demographics of Christianity; large increases in the developing world have been accompanied by substantial declines in the developed world, mainly in Europe and North America.<ref>Werner Ustorf. "A missiological postscript", in McLeod and Ustorf (eds), ''The Decline of Christendom in (Western) Europe, 1750–2000'', ([[Cambridge University Press]], 2003) pp. 219–20.</ref> According to a 2015 [[Pew Research Center]] study, within the next four decades, Christians will remain the [[Major religious groups#Largest religions|world's largest religion]]; and by 2050, the Christian population is expected to exceed 3 billion.<ref name=PewProjections>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/files/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf|title= The Future of World Religions: Population Growth Projections, 2010–2050}}</ref>{{rp|60}}
As a percentage of Christians, the [[Catholic Church]] and [[Orthodoxy]] (both [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern]] and [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental]]) are declining in parts of the world (though Catholicism is growing in Asia, in Africa, vibrant in Eastern Europe, etc.), while [[Protestants]] and other [[Christians]] are on the rise in the developing world.<ref name="pewforum1"/><ref>Johnstone, Patrick, [https://books.google.com/books?id=AVzFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA109 "The Future of the Global Church: History, Trends and Possibilities"], p. 100, fig 4.10 & 4.11</ref><ref>Hillerbrand, Hans J., [https://books.google.com/books?id=4tbFBQAAQBAJ&lpg=PT3311 "Encyclopedia of Protestantism: 4-volume Set"], p. 1815, "Observers carefully comparing all these figures in the total context will have observed the even more startling finding that for the first itime ever in the history of Protestantism, ''Wider Protestants'' will by 2050 have become almost exactly as numerous as Catholics – each with just over 1.5 billion followers, or 17 percent of the world, with Protestants growing considerably faster than Catholics each year."</ref> The so-called ''popular Protestantism''<ref group="note">A flexible term; defined as all forms of Protestantism with the notable exception of the historical denominations deriving directly from the Protestant Reformation.</ref> is one of the fastest growing religious categories in the world.<ref name="books.google.com">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ic5pyiIkTxAC&pg=PA16|title=Religion in Global Civil Society|first=Mark|last=Juergensmeyer|date=3 November 2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=16|isbn=9780198040699}}</ref><ref name="Barker">{{cite web|url=http://www.allacademic.com//meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/0/3/9/8/7/pages39879/p39879-1.php|title=Engendering Charismatic Economies: Pentecostalism, Global Political Economy, and the Crisis of Social Reproduction|last=Barker|first=Isabelle V.|year=2005|publisher=[[American Political Science Association]]|pages=2, 8 and footnote 14 on page 8|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217004703/http://citation.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/0/3/9/8/7/pages39879/p39879-1.php|archive-date=17 December 2013|accessdate=March 25, 2010}}</ref> Nevertheless, Catholicism will also continue to grow to 1.63 billion by 2050, according to Todd Johnson of the Center for the Study of Global Christianity. <ref>Todd M. Johnson, Gina A Zurlo, Albert W. Hickman, and Peter F. Grossing, "Christianity 2016: Latin America and Projecting Religions to 2050," INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSION RESEARCH, 2016, Vol. 40 (1) 22-29. </ref> Africa alone, by 2015, will be home to 230 million African Catholics. <ref>Barrett, 29.</ref>And if in 2018 the U.N. projects that Africa's population will reach 4.5 billion by 2100 (not 2 billion as predicted in 2004), Catholicism will indeed grow as will other religious groups.<ref>Ross Douthat, "Fear of a Black Continent," NEW YORK TIMES, Oct. 21, 2018, 9.</ref>
Christianity is the predominant religion in Europe, the [[Americas]] and [[Southern Africa]]. In Asia, it is the dominant religion in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], [[Armenia]], [[East Timor]] and the [[Philippines]].<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/table?tocId=9394911 Encyclopædia Britannica] table of religions, by region. Retrieved November 2007. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080218163337/http://www.britannica.com/eb/table?tocId=9394911 |date=18 February 2008 }}</ref> However, it is declining in many areas including the [[Northern United States|Northern]] and [[Western United States]],<ref>{{cite web|author=ARIS 2008 Report: Part IA – Belonging |url=http://b27.cc.trincoll.edu/weblogs/AmericanReligionSurvey-ARIS/reports/p1a_belong.html |title=American Religious Identification Survey 2008 |publisher=B27.cc.trincoll.edu |date= |accessdate=19 November 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518163841/http://b27.cc.trincoll.edu/weblogs/AmericanReligionSurvey-ARIS/reports/p1a_belong.html |archivedate=18 May 2011}}</ref> Oceania (Australia and New Zealand), northern Europe (including Great Britain,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ekklesia.co.uk/news/uk/061223/christendom |title=New UK opinion poll shows continuing collapse of 'Christendom' |publisher=Ekklesia.co.uk |date=23 December 2006|accessdate=19 November 2010}}</ref> Scandinavia and other places), France, Germany, the Canadian provinces of [[Ontario]], [[British Columbia]] and [[Quebec]], and parts of Asia (especially the Middle East – due to the [[Christian emigration]],<ref>Barrett/Kurian.''World Christian Encyclopedia'', p. 139 (Britain), 281 (France), 299 (Germany).</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4499668.stm |title=Christians in the Middle East |publisher=BBC News |date=15 December 2005 |accessdate=19 November 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Katz |first=Gregory |url=http://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/world/4425100.html |title=Is Christianity dying in the birthplace of Jesus? |publisher=Chron.com |date=25 December 2006 |accessdate=19 November 2010}}</ref> [[Christianity in South Korea|South Korea]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.omf.org/omf/uk/about_asia/countries/korea/south_korea_profile |title=Number of Christians among young Koreans decreases by 5% per year |publisher=Omf.org |date= |accessdate=19 November 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226073820/http://www.omf.org/omf/uk/about_asia/countries/korea/south_korea_profile |archivedate=26 February 2009 |df=dmy }}</ref> [[Taiwan]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://americanbuddhist.net/christianity-fading-taiwan |title=Christianity fading in Taiwan | American Buddhist Net |publisher=Americanbuddhist.net |date=10 November 2007 |accessdate=5 May 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090224112858/http://americanbuddhist.net/christianity-fading-taiwan |archivedate=24 February 2009 }}</ref> and [[Macau]]<ref>{{cite news|last=Greenlees |first=Donald |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/26/world/asia/26macao.html?_r=1&oref=slogin |title=A Gambling-Fueled Boom Adds to a Church's Bane |location=Macao |publisher=Nytimes.com |date=26 December 2007 |accessdate=30 June 2011}}</ref>).
The Christian population is not decreasing in Brazil, the [[Southern United States]]<ref name=ARIS2008>{{cite web|url=http://b27.cc.trincoll.edu/weblogs/AmericanReligionSurvey-ARIS/reports/ARIS_Report_2008.pdf |format=PDF |title=American Religious Identification Survey (ARIS) 2008 |author1=Barry A. Kosmin |author2=Ariela Keysar |year=2009 |publisher=Trinity College |location=Hartford, Connecticut, USA |accessdate=1 April 2009 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090407053149/http://b27.cc.trincoll.edu/weblogs/AmericanReligionSurvey-ARIS/reports/ARIS_Report_2008.pdf |archivedate=7 April 2009 |df=dmy }}</ref> and the province of [[Alberta]], Canada,<ref name="census2001">{{cite web |url=http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census01/products/standard/themes/RetrieveProductTable.cfm?Temporal=2001&PID=55822&APATH=3&GID=431515&METH=1&PTYPE=55440&THEME=56&FOCUS=0&AID=0&PLACENAME=0&PROVINCE=0&SEARCH=0&GC=99&GK=NA&VID=0&VNAMEE=&VNAMEF=&FL=0&RL=0&FREE=0 |title=Religions in Canada—Census 2001 |publisher=2.statcan.ca |date=9 March 2010 |accessdate=19 November 2010}}</ref> but the percentage is decreasing. In countries such as Australia<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.censusdata.abs.gov.au/ABSNavigation/prenav/PopularAreas?&collection=Census&period=2006&&navmapdisplayed=true&textversion=false |title=Australian 2006 census – Religion |publisher=Censusdata.abs.gov.au |date= |accessdate=19 November 2010}}</ref> and New Zealand,<ref name="2006table28">[http://www.stats.govt.nz/~/media/Statistics/Publications/Census/2006-reports/quickstats-subject/Culture-Identity/quickstats-about-culture-and-identity-tables.ashx Table 28, 2006 Census Data – QuickStats About Culture and Identity – Tables]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724200044/http://www.stats.govt.nz/~/media/Statistics/Publications/Census/2006-reports/quickstats-subject/Culture-Identity/quickstats-about-culture-and-identity-tables.ashx |date=24 July 2011 }}</ref> the Christian population are declining in both numbers and percentage.
Despite the declining numbers, Christianity remains the dominant religion in the [[Western World]], where 70% are Christians.<ref name="Global Christianity"/> A 2011 [[Pew Research Center]] survey found that 76.2% of [[Europe]]ans, 73.3% in [[Oceania]] and about 86.0% in the [[Americas]] (90.0% in [[Latin America]] and 77.4% in [[North America]]) identified themselves as Christians.<ref name="Global Christianity"/><ref>{{cite web|author=ANALYSIS |url=http://www.pewforum.org/Christian/Global-Christianity-europe.aspx |title=Europe |publisher=Pewforum.org |date=19 December 2011 |accessdate=17 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=ANALYSIS |url=http://www.pewforum.org/Christian/Global-Christianity-americas.aspx |title=Americas |publisher=Pewforum.org |date=19 December 2011 |accessdate=17 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=ANALYSIS |url=http://www.pewforum.org/global-religious-landscape-christians.aspx |title=Global religious landscape: Christians |publisher=Pewforum.org |date=19 December 2011 |accessdate=17 August 2012}}</ref> By 2010 about 157 countries and territories in the world had [[Christianity by country|Christian majorities]].<ref name="PewDec2012" />
However, there are many [[charismatic movements]] that have become well established over large parts of the world, especially Africa, Latin America and Asia.<ref>David Stoll, "Is Latin America Turning Protestant?" published Berkeley: University of California Press. 1990</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/nrms/penta.html|title=Pentecostalism|author=Jeff Hadden|year=1997|accessdate=24 September 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060427204250/http://religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/nrms/penta.html |archivedate=27 April 2006}}</ref><ref name=movedbythespirit >{{cite web|url= http://pewforum.org/events/?EventID=109|title=Moved by the Spirit: Pentecostal Power and Politics after 100 Years|author1=Pew Forum on Religion |author2=Public Life |date=24 April 2006|accessdate=24 September 2008}}</ref><ref name=britannica>{{cite encyclopedia|title=Pentecostalism |encyclopedia=Britannica Concise Encyclopedia |year=2007 |url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1B1-374862.html |accessdate=21 December 2008 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090112143456/http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1B1-374862.html |archivedate=12 January 2009 }}</ref><ref name=CTReview>{{cite web|url=http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2000/november13/36.107.html|title=The CT Review: Pie-in-the-Sky Now|author=Ed Gitre, Christianity Today Magazine|date=13 November 2000}}</ref> Since 1900, primarily due to conversion, Protestantism has spread rapidly in Africa, Asia, Oceania and Latin America.<ref name = "Encyclopedia of Protestantism">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bW3sXBjnokkC&pg=PR11|title=Encyclopedia of Protestantism|first=J. Gordon|last=Melton|date=1 January 2005|publisher=Infobase Publishing|isbn=978-0-8160-6983-5|page=11}}</ref> From 1960 to 2000, the global growth of the number of reported [[Evangelical Protestants]] grew three times the world's population rate, and twice that of [[Islam]].<ref>{{Cite book| title=Know the Truth: A Handbook of Christian Belief | last=Milne | first=Bruce | year=2010 | publisher=InterVarsity Press | page=332 |isbn=978-0-83082-576-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W_ttliPuhjQC}}</ref> St. Mary's University study estimated about 10.2 million [[Muslim]] [[convert to Christianity]] in 2015.<ref name="academia.edu"/> as well a significant numbers of Muslims converts to Christianity in Afghanistan,<ref name="state2009">{{cite web | author= USSD Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor| year=2009| title=International Religious Freedom Report 2009| url=https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2009/127362.htm | accessdate=2010-03-06}}</ref> Albania,<ref name="academia.edu">{{cite journal|last1=Johnstone|first1=Patrick|last2=Miller|first2=Duane Alexander|title=Believers in Christ from a Muslim Background: A Global Census|journal=IJRR|date=2015|volume=11|issue=10|pages=1–19|url=https://www.academia.edu/16338087|accessdate=30 October 2015}}</ref> Azerbaijan<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.day.az/society/85160.html|title=5,000 Azerbaijanis adopted Christianity|publisher=Day.az|date=7 July 2007|language=Russian|accessdate=30 January 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://azeri.irib.ir/tehliller/item/148029-xristian-missioner-t%C9%99riq%C9%99tl%C9%99r-ar-da-aktivl%C9%99sir?tmpl=component&print=1|title=Christian Missionaries Becoming Active in Azerbaijan|publisher=Tehran Radio|date=19 June 2011|language=Azerbaijani|accessdate=12 August 2012}}</ref> Algeria,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecoi.net/local_link/256856/368809_en.html|title=Algeria: Situation of Christians, including the treatment of Christians by society and by the authorities; availability of state protection; the fire at Tafat church; whether there were convictions for proselytism (2010 – July 2013) [DZA104491.FE]|first=Immigration and Refugee Board of|last=Canada|date=17 July 2013|publisher=}}</ref><ref name="ChristianAction">[http://www.christianaction.org.za/articles./MuslimsTurnToChrist.htm Muslims Turn to Christ – ChristianAction]{{dead link|date=November 2010}}</ref> Belgium,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oneindia.com/international/in-europe-many-muslims-renounce-islam-embrace-christianity-report-1567395.html|title=In Europe, many Muslims renounce Islam, embrace Christianity: Report|publisher=}}</ref> France,<ref name="ChristianAction"/> Germany,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/iran-blog/2014/may/12/iran-converted-christians-sanctuary-germany-muslim|title='Our second mother': Iran's converted Christians find sanctuary in Germany|first=Liana|last=Aghajanian|date=12 May 2014|via=The Guardian}}</ref> Iran,<ref>{{cite web|author=Gary Lane |url=http://www.cbn.com/CBNnews/437006.aspx |title=House Churches Growing in Iran |publisher=Cbn.com |date= |accessdate=17 August 2012}}</ref> India,<ref name="ChristianAction"/> Indonesia,<ref>{{cite book |date=February 15, 2001 |editor1=David B. Barrett |editor2=George Thomas Kurian |editor3=Todd M. Johnson |title=World Christian Encyclopedia p.374|url= |location= |publisher=Oxford University Press USA |isbn=978-0195079630 }}</ref> Malaysia,<ref name="Musa">{{cite web |url=http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2011/10/22/focus/9749626&sec=focus |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111024141407/http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=%2F2011%2F10%2F22%2Ffocus%2F9749626&sec=focus |dead-url=yes |archive-date=24 October 2011 |title=What is Himpun about? |author1=AHMAD FAROUK MUSA |author2=MOHD RADZIQ JALALUDDIN |author3=AHMAD FUAD RAHMAT |author4=EDRY FAIZAL EDDY YUSUF |date=22 October 2011 |website= |publisher=The Star |accessdate=16 December 2011 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Morocco,<ref name="ChristianAction"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.christianitytoday.com/gleanings/2013/may/christian-converts-in-morocco-fear-fatwa-calling-for-their.html|title=Christian Converts in Morocco Fear Fatwa Calling for Their Execution}}</ref> Russia,<ref name="ChristianAction"/> Netherlands,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.frieschdagblad.nl/index.asp?artID=50476|title=Friesch Dagblad}}</ref> Saudi Arabia,<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of religious freedom|last=Cookson|first=Catharine|year=2003|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-94181-5|page=207|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R0PrjC1Ar7gC&pg=PA207}}</ref> Tunisia,<ref name="academia.edu"/> Turkey,<ref name="ChristianAction"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://churchinchains.ie/node/743|title=TURKEY: Protestant church closed down – Church In Chains – Ireland :: An Irish voice for suffering, persecuted Christians Worldwide}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ekklesia.co.uk/node/14276|title=Ekklesia – Turkish Protestants still face 'long path' to religious freedom|date=8 March 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=khadijabibi |url=http://www.chowk.com/ilogs/74358/51514 |title=35,000 Muslims convert into Christianity each year in Turkey |publisher=Chowk.com |date=30 October 2009 |accessdate=19 November 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120924020548/http://www.chowk.com/ilogs/74358/51514 |archivedate=24 September 2012 }}</ref> Kazakhstan,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stat.kz/p_perepis/Documents/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%86%20%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2.rar |title=Нац состав.rar |accessdate=24 July 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723084232/http://www.stat.kz/p_perepis/Documents/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%86%20%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B2.rar |archivedate=23 July 2011 }}</ref> Kyrgyzstan,<ref name="academia.edu"/> Kosovo,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.economist.com/node/12868180|title=Conversion rate|date=30 December 2008|via=The Economist}}</ref> United States,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncregister.com/daily-news/why-are-millions-of-muslims-becoming-christian/|title=Why Are Millions of Muslims Becoming Christian?}}</ref> and Central Asia.<ref>{{cite web|author=Jeni Mitchell |url=http://icsr.info/blog-item.php?id=111 |title=FREEradicals – Targeting Christians in Central Asia |publisher=Icsr.info |date= |accessdate=17 August 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120224154546/http://icsr.info/blog-item.php?id=111 |archivedate=24 February 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.opendoorsusa.org/pray/prayer-updates/2011/December/Christianity-Is-Alive-in-Central-Asia |title=Despite Government Set-backs, Christianity Is Alive in Central Asia |publisher=Opendoorsusa.org |date=30 November 2011 |accessdate=17 August 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120110173826/http://www.opendoorsusa.org/pray/prayer-updates/2011/December/Christianity-Is-Alive-in-Central-Asia |archivedate=10 January 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> It is also reported that Christianity is popular among people of different backgrounds in India (mostly Hindus),<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4290843.stm |work=BBC News | first=Narayan | last=Bareth | title=State to bar religious conversion | date=23 February 2005}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/keyword/religious-conversions/recent/5 |work=The Times of India |location=India | title=Religious Conversions}}</ref> and Malaysia,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.christianaggression.org/item_display.php?id=1116227550&type=news |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071123035716/http://www.christianaggression.org/item_display.php?type=NEWS&id=1116227550 |dead-url=yes |archive-date=23 November 2007 |title=160,000 Have Converted Out of Hinduism in Malaysia in 25 Years |publisher=Christianaggression.org |date=16 May 2005 |accessdate=19 November 2010 }}</ref> Mongolia,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mongolia-attractions.com/religions-in-mongolia.html |title=Religions in Mongolia |publisher=Mongolia-attractions.com |date= |accessdate=19 November 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513073925/https://www.mongolia-attractions.com/religions-in-mongolia.html |archivedate=13 May 2011 |df=dmy }}</ref> Nigeria,<ref name="Religious Demographic Profiles">[http://pewforum.org/world-affairs/countries/?countryID=150 Religious Demographic Profiles – Pew Forum] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100421200729/http://pewforum.org/world-affairs/countries/?countryID=150 |date=21 April 2010 }}</ref> Vietnam,<ref name="liberty">{{cite web|title=Annual Report on International Religious Freedom for 2005 – Vietnam |website=U.S. Department of State |date=30 June 2005 |url=http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rsd/rsddocview.html?tbl=RSDCOI&id=437c9cdd2&count=0 |accessdate=11 March 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20061020211314/http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rsd/rsddocview.html?tbl=RSDCOI&id=437c9cdd2&count=0 |archivedate=20 October 2006}}</ref> Singapore,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://newnation.sg/2011/01/christianity-non-religious-register-biggest-growth-census-2010/ |title=Christianity, non-religious register biggest growth: Census 2010 |publisher=Newnation.sg |date=13 January 2011 |accessdate=17 August 2012}}</ref> Indonesia,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5gZ68H857ADsOp81TePJQmLhShESw |title=In Indonesia, Lunar New Year an old practice for young Christians |publisher=Webcitation.org |date= |accessdate=17 August 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/60y2wqSF7?url=http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5gZ68H857ADsOp81TePJQmLhShESw |archivedate=15 August 2011 |df=dmy }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/27/opinion/27iht-edbrazier.html?_r=1 |title=In Indonesia, the Chinese go to church |publisher=Nytimes.com |date=27 April 2006 |accessdate=17 August 2012}}</ref> China,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-12060445/Christianity-2010-a-vie-from.html |title=Christianity 2010: a view from the new Atlas of Global Christianity |publisher=Goliath.ecnext.com |date=1 January 2010 |accessdate=17 August 2012}}</ref> Japan,<ref name="christianpost.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.christianpost.com/news/more-people-claim-christian-faith-in-japan-1549/|title=More People Claim Christian Faith in Japan}}</ref> and South Korea.<ref>{{cite news|last=Landau |first=Christopher |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8322072.stm |title=Will South Korea become Christian? |publisher=BBC News |date=26 October 2009 |accessdate=17 August 2012}}</ref>
In most countries in the developed world, [[church attendance]] among people who continue to identify themselves as Christians has been falling over the last few decades.<ref>Putnam, ''Democracies in Flux: The Evolution of Social Capital in Contemporary Society'', p. 408.</ref> Some sources view this simply as part of a drift away from traditional membership institutions,<ref>McGrath, ''Christianity: An Introduction'', p. xvi.</ref> while others link it to signs of a decline in belief in the importance of religion in general.<ref>Peter Marber, ''Money Changes Everything: How Global Prosperity Is Reshaping Our Needs, Values and Lifestyles'', p. 99.</ref> Europe's Christian population, though in decline, still constitutes the largest geographical component of the religion.<ref>Philip Jenkins God's Continent, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007, p. 56</ref> According to data from the 2012 European Social Survey, around a third of [[Christianity in Europe|European Christians]] say they attend services once a month or more,<ref name="economist">{{cite web|url=https://www.economist.com/news/international/21684679-march-christianity-future-worlds-most-popular-religion-african|title=The future of the world's most popular religion is African|date=25 December 2015|via=The Economist}}</ref> Conversely about more than two-thirds of Latin American Christians and according to the [[World Values Survey]] about 90% of [[Christianity in Africa|African Christians]] (in [[Ghana]], [[Nigeria]], [[Rwanda]], [[South Africa]] and [[Zimbabwe]]) said they attended church regularly.<ref name="economist"/>
[[Christian state|Christianity]], in one form or another, is the sole [[state religion]] of the following nations: Argentina (Catholic),<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica-Argentina">{{cite web|url =http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/33657/Argentina| title = Argentina|publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate = 11 May 2008}}</ref> [[Tuvalu]] (Reformed), [[Tonga]] (Methodist), Norway (Lutheran),<ref name="abcnyheter">[http://www.abcnyheter.no/nyheter/080410/losere-band-men-fortsatt-statskirke Løsere bånd, men fortsatt statskirke] {{webarchive|url=https://www.webcitation.org/6DEb3MkkC?url=http://www.abcnyheter.no/nyheter/080410/losere-band-men-fortsatt-statskirke|date=27 December 2012}}, ABC Nyheter<!-- https://www.webcitation.org/6DEb3MkkC?url=http://www.abcnyheter.no/nyheter/080410/losere-band-men-fortsatt-statskirke --></ref><ref>[http://www.nrk.no/nyheter/norge/1.8076910 Staten skal ikke lenger ansette biskoper], NRK</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://fritanke.no/index.php?page=vis_nyhet&NyhetID=8840|title=Ingen avskaffelse: / Slik blir den nye statskirkeordningen|first=Human-Etisk|last=Forbund}}</ref> Costa Rica (Catholic),<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica-Costa Rica">{{cite web|url =http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/139528/Costa-Rica| title = Costa Rica|publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate = 11 May 2008}}</ref> Kingdom of Denmark (Lutheran),<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica-Denmark">{{cite web|url =http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/157748/Denmark| title = Denmark|publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate = 11 May 2008}}</ref> England (Anglican),<ref name="Centre for Citizenship-England">{{cite web|url=http://www.centreforcitizenship.org/church1.html |title=Church and State in Britain: The Church of privilege |publisher=Centre for Citizenship |accessdate=11 May 2008 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511204430/http://www.centreforcitizenship.org/church1.html |archivedate=11 May 2008 |df=dmy }}</ref> Georgia (Georgian Orthodox),<ref name="Beliefnet-Georgia">{{cite web|url =http://blog.beliefnet.com/stevenwaldman/2008/08/mccain-praises-georgia-for-ado.html| title = McCain Praises Georgia For Adopting Christianity As Official State Religion|publisher = BeliefNet|accessdate = 11 April 2009}}</ref> [[Greece]] (Greek Orthodox),<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica-El Salvador">{{cite web|url =http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/181798/El-Salvador| title = El Salvador|publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate = 11 May 2008}}</ref> Iceland (Lutheran),<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica-Iceland">{{cite web|url =http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/281235/Iceland|title = Iceland|publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate = 11 May 2008}}</ref> Liechtenstein (Catholic),<ref name="U.S. Department of State-Liechtenstein">{{cite web|url =https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2003/24418.htm|title = Liechtenstein|publisher = U.S. Department of State|accessdate = 11 May 2008}}</ref> Malta (Catholic),<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica-Malta">{{cite web|url =http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/360532/Malta|title = Malta|publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate = 11 May 2008}}</ref> Monaco (Catholic),<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica-Monaco">{{cite web|url =http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/388747/Monaco|title = Monaco|publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate = 11 May 2008}}</ref> and [[Vatican City]] (Catholic).<ref name="Encyclopædia Britannica-Vatican City">{{cite web|url =http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/623972/Vatican-City|title = Vatican|publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate = 11 May 2008}}</ref>
There are numerous other countries, such as Cyprus, which although do not have an [[established church]], still give official recognition and support to a specific [[Christian denomination]].<ref name="U.S. Department of State-Cyprus">{{cite web|url =https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2003/27433.htm|title = Cyprus|publisher = U.S. Department of State|accessdate = 11 May 2008}}</ref>
<center>
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Demographics of major traditions within Christianity ([[Pew Research Center]], 2010 data)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/2011/12/19/global-christianity-exec/|title=Global Christianity – A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population|date=19 December 2011}}</ref>
|-
! cyrus="col" | Tradition
! scope="col" | Followers
! scope="col" | % of the Christian population
! scope="col" | % of the world population
! scope="col" | Follower dynamics
! scope="col" | Dynamics in- and outside Christianity
|- style="background: yellow"
| [[Catholic Church]]
| 1,094,610,000
| 50.1
| 15.9
| {{increase}} Growing
| {{increase}} Growing
|- style="background: #B57EDC"
| [[Protestantism]]
| 800,640,000
| 36.7
| 11.6
| {{increase}} Growing
| {{increase}} Growing
|- style="background: #9F8170"
| Orthodoxy
| 260,380,000
| 11.9
| 3.8
| {{decrease}} Declining
| {{decrease}} Declining
|- style="background: cyan"
| Other Christianity
| 28,430,000
| 1.3
| 0.4
| {{increase}} Growing
| {{increase}} Growing
|-
! Christianity
! 2,184,060,000
! 100
! 31.7
! {{increase}} Growing
! {{nochange}} Stable
|}</center>
<br><div style="overflow:auto;">
[[File:Christianity percent population in each nation World Map Christian data by Pew Research.svg|upright=4.55|thumb|center|The global distribution of Christians: Countries colored a darker shade have a higher proportion of Christians.<ref>{{cite web|author=ANALYSIS |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/table-religious-composition-by-country-in-percentages/ |title=Table: Religious Composition by Country, in Percentages |publisher=Pewforum.org |date=19 December 2011 |accessdate=17 August 2012}}</ref>]]</div>
<br>
<gallery>
File:Christian world map.png|Countries with 50% or more Christians are colored purple while countries with 10% to 50% Christians are colored pink
File:Map of state religions.svg|Nations with Christianity as their [[state religion]] are in blue
File:Map of state religions (detailed).svg|Nations with Christianity as their [[state religion]] (detailed map; see legend for more)
File:Catholic population.svg|Distribution of Catholics
File:Countries by percentage of Protestants (2010).svg|Distribution of Protestants
File:Eastern Orthodoxy by country.png|Distribution of Eastern Orthodox
File:Oriental Orthodoxy by country.png|Distribution of Oriental Orthodox
File:Other Christians by country.png|Other Christians by number: black - more than 10 million; red - more than 1 million
</gallery>
==Denominations==
{{Further|List of Christian denominations|List of Christian denominations by number of members}}
{{Christian denomination tree}}
The four primary divisions of Christianity are the [[Catholic Church]], the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], [[Oriental Orthodoxy]], and [[Protestantism]].<ref name="Rhodes 2005"/>{{rp|14}}<ref name="North Virgina College—Four Sects">{{cite web|url = http://www.nvcc.edu/home/lshulman/Rel232/resource/Xiandivision.htm| title = Divisions of Christianity|publisher = North Virginia College|accessdate = 31 December 2007}}</ref> A broader distinction that is sometimes drawn is between [[Eastern Christianity]] and [[Western Christianity]], which has its origins in the [[East–West Schism]] (Great Schism) of the 11th century. However, there are other present<ref name="Religious Tolerance—Four Sects">{{cite web|url = http://www.religioustolerance.org/ldswho.htm| title = The LDS Restorationist movement, including Mormon denominations|publisher = Religious Tolerance|accessdate = 31 December 2007}}</ref> and historical<ref>{{cite book | first=Bart D.|last=Ehrman|authorlink=Bart D. Ehrman| title=Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew | publisher=[[Oxford University Press]], USA | year=2003 | isbn=978-0-19-514183-2|page=1}}</ref> Christian groups that do not fit neatly into one of these primary categories.
There is a diversity of [[doctrine]]s and [[Liturgy|liturgical]] practices among groups calling themselves Christian. These groups may vary [[ecclesiology|ecclesiologically]] in their views on a classification of [[Christian denomination]]s.<ref>[[Sydney E. Ahlstrom]], characterized [[denominationalism]] in America as "a virtual ecclesiology" that "first of all repudiates the insistences of the Catholic Church, the churches of the 'magisterial' Reformation, and of most sects that they alone are the true Church." ({{cite book |last=Ahlstrom |first=Sydney E. |last2=Hall |first2=David D. |year=2004|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kFF6a1viGcC&pg=PA381|title=A Religious History of the American People |edition=Revised|publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-10012-9|page=381}});
*{{cite book |last=Nash |first=Donald A.|url=https://www.thecra.org/files/WhyNotDenom.pdf|title=Why the Churches of Christ are Not a Denomination|accessdate=17 June 2014|pages=1–3 |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5n7kJH3Yf?url=http://www.crownhillchurch.com/Why_the_Churches_of_Christ_Are_Not_A_Denomination.pdf |archivedate=28 January 2010 |deadurl=yes |df=dmy-all }};
*Wendell Winkler, [http://www.thebible.net/introchurch/ch4.html Christ's Church is not a Denomination];
*{{cite web |url=http://www.biblestudylessons.com/jesuslord/jeslord8-lesson.php |title=Jesus Is Lord Free Online Bible Study Course Lesson 8, II. How Did Modern Denominations Begin? |author=David E. Pratte |date=1999 |website=biblestudylessons.com |accessdate=17 June 2014 }}</ref> The [[Nicene Creed]] (325), however, is typically accepted as authoritative by most Christians, including the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and major Protestant, including Anglican denominations.<ref>{{cite web | title =Nicene Creed | website =Encyclopædia Britannica Online | publisher =Encyclopædia Britannica |year=2007 | url =http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9055702| accessdate =31 December 2007}}</ref>
By reason of [[Protestant ecclesiology]], ever since its emergence in the 16th century Protestantism comprises the widest diversity of groupings and practices. In addition to the [[Lutheran]] and [[Reformed]] (or Calvinist) branches of the Reformation, there is [[Anglicanism]] after the [[English Reformation]]. The [[Anabaptist]] tradition was largely ostracized by the other Protestant parties at the time, but has achieved a measure of affirmation in more recent history. [[Adventism|Adventist]], [[Baptist]], [[Methodist]], [[Pentecostal]] and [[List of Christian denominations#Protestantism|other Protestant]] confessions arose in the following centuries.
===Catholic Church===
{{Main|Catholic Church}}
[[File:Franciscus in 2015.jpg|thumb|[[Pope Francis]], the current leader of the Catholic Church]]
The Catholic Church consists of those [[particular Church]]es, headed by bishops, in communion with the [[Pope]], the Bishop of Rome, as its highest authority in matters of faith, morality and Church governance.<ref name="LumenG">[[Second Vatican Council]], ''[http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html Lumen Gentium] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140906031754/http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html |date=6 September 2014 }}''.</ref><ref name="SandSp1">Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'', p. 1.</ref> Like [[Eastern Orthodox]]y, the Catholic Church, through [[apostolic succession]], traces its origins to the Christian community founded by Jesus Christ.<ref name="NatGeographic281">Hitchcock, ''Geography of Religion'', p. 281.</ref><ref name="Norman11">Norman, ''The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History'', p. 11, 14.</ref> Catholics maintain that the "[[Four Marks of the Church|one, holy, catholic and apostolic church]]" founded by Jesus [["Subsistit in" in Lumen Gentium|subsists fully]] in the Catholic Church, but also acknowledges other Christian churches and communities<ref name="LumenGentium">[[Second Vatican Council]], ''[http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html Lumen Gentium]'' {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140906031754/http://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html |date=6 September 2014 }}, chapter 2, paragraph 15.</ref><ref>[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]], [http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p123a9p3.htm#IV paragraph 865]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150812051820/http://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p123a9p3.htm#IV |date=12 August 2015 }}</ref> and works towards [[ecumenism|reconciliation]] among all Christians.<ref name = "LumenGentium"/> The Catholic faith is detailed in the ''[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]''.<ref name="cat">Marthaler, ''Introducing the Catechism of the Catholic Church, Traditional Themes and Contemporary Issues'' (1994), preface.</ref><ref>{{cite web | last = John Paul II| first =Pope | title =Laetamur Magnopere | publisher =Vatican | year =1997 | url =http://www.usccb.org/catechism/text/laetamurmagnopere.htm | archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20080211121910/http://www.usccb.org/catechism/text/laetamurmagnopere.htm | archivedate =11 February 2008 | accessdate =9 March 2008 }}</ref>
The 2,834 [[Episcopal see|sees]]<ref>''[[Annuario Pontificio]]'' (2012), p. 1142.</ref> are grouped into [[Sui iuris#Catholic ecclesiastical use|24 particular autonomous Churches]] (the largest of which being the [[Latin Church]]), each with its own distinct traditions regarding the [[liturgy]] and the administering the [[Sacraments of the Catholic Church|sacraments]].<ref name="OneFaith71">Barry, ''One Faith, One Lord'' (2001), p. 71</ref> With more than 1.1 billion baptized members, the Catholic Church is the largest Christian [[Ecclesia (church)|church]] and represents over half of all Christians as well as one sixth of the [[world population|world's population]].<ref name=autogenerated1>[[Central Intelligence Agency]], ''[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/xx.html CIA World Factbook]'' (2007).</ref><ref name="Adherents">Adherents.com, [http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html ''Religions by Adherents'']</ref><ref>''Zenit.org'', "[http://www.zenit.org/article-18894?l=english Number of Catholics and Priests Rises] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080225194908/http://www.zenit.org/article-18894?l=english |date=25 February 2008 }}", 12 February 2007.</ref>
===Eastern Orthodox Church===
{{Main|Eastern Orthodox Church}}
[[File:Moscow July 2011-7a.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Cathedral of Christ the Saviour]] in [[Moscow]] is the tallest [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox Christian]] church in the world.]]
The Eastern Orthodox Church consists of those churches in communion with the [[Patriarch]]al Sees of the East, such as the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople]].<ref name="ODCC1199">Cross/Livingstone. ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'', p. 1199.</ref> Like the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church also traces its heritage to the foundation of Christianity through [[apostolic succession]] and has an [[Episcopal polity|episcopal]] structure, though the [[autocephaly|autonomy]] of its component parts is emphasized, and most of them are national churches.
A number of conflicts with Western Christianity over questions of doctrine and authority culminated in the [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]]. Eastern Orthodoxy is the second largest single denomination in Christianity, with an estimated 225–300 million adherents.<ref name="Global Christianity"/><ref name="Adherents"/><ref name=aboutWeb>{{cite web |last1=Fairchild |first1=Mary |title=Christianity:Basics:Eastern Orthodox Church Denomination |publisher=about.com |url=http://christianity.about.com/od/easternorthodoxy/p/orthodoxprofile.htm |accessdate=22 May 2014 |ref=none }}</ref>
===Oriental Orthodoxy===
{{Main|Oriental Orthodoxy}}
The [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox churches]] (also called "Old Oriental" churches) are those eastern churches that recognize the first three ecumenical councils—[[First Council of Nicaea|Nicaea]], [[First Council of Constantinople|Constantinople]] and [[First Council of Ephesus|Ephesus]]—but reject the dogmatic definitions of the [[Council of Chalcedon]] and instead espouse a [[Miaphysite]] [[christology]].
The Oriental Orthodox communion consists of six groups: [[Syriac Orthodox]], [[Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria|Coptic Orthodox]], [[Ethiopian Orthodox]], [[Eritrean Orthodox]], [[Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church]] (India) and [[Armenian Apostolic]] churches.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wcc-coe.org/wcc/what/ecumenical/ooc-e.html |title=Oriental Orthodox Churches |publisher=Wcc-coe.org|accessdate=19 November 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100406014259/http://www.wcc-coe.org/wcc/what/ecumenical/ooc-e.html |archivedate=6 April 2010 }}</ref> These six churches, while being in communion with each other are completely independent hierarchically.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pluralism.org/affiliates/student/allen/Oriental-Orthodox/Home.html |title=An Introduction to the Oriental Orthodox Churches |publisher=Pluralism.org |date=15 March 2005 |accessdate=19 November 2010}}</ref> These churches are generally not in communion with [[Eastern Orthodox Churches]] with whom they are in dialogue for erecting a communion.<ref name="sor.cua.edu">{{cite web|author=OONS |url=http://sor.cua.edu/Ecumenism/20010317oomtg4.html |title=Syrian Orthodox Resources – Middle Eastern Oriental Orthodox Common Declaration |publisher=Sor.cua.edu|accessdate=19 November 2010}}</ref>
===Assyrian Church of the East===
[[File:Church of Saint John the Arab.jpg|thumb|A 6th-century [[Nestorian church]], St. John the Arab, in the [[Assyrian tribes|Assyrian village]] of [[Andac|Geramon]] in southeastern [[Turkey]].]]
{{Main|Assyrian Church of the East}}
The [[Assyrian Church of the East]], with an unbroken patriarchate established in the 17th century, is an independent [[Eastern Christian]] denomination which claims continuity from the [[Church of the East]] – in parallel to the Catholic patriarchate established in the 16th century that evolved into the [[Chaldean Catholic Church]], an [[Eastern Catholic]] church in [[full communion]] with the [[Pope]]. It is an [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern Christian]] [[Christian denomination|Church]] that follows the traditional [[christology]] and [[ecclesiology]] of the historical Church of the East. Largely [[Aniconism in Christianity|aniconic]] and not in [[communion (Christianity)|communion]] with any other church, it belongs to the eastern branch of [[Syriac Christianity]], and uses the [[East Syriac Rite]] in its [[liturgy]].<ref>{{Cite book|ref=harv|last=Baumer|first=Christoph|title=The Church of the East: An Illustrated History of Assyrian Christianity|year=2006|location=London-New York|publisher=Tauris|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SQ7ZAAAAMAAJ}}</ref>
Its main spoken language is [[Syriac language|Syriac]], a dialect of [[Eastern Aramaic]], and the majority of its adherents are ethnic [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]]. It is officially headquartered in the city of [[Erbil]] in northern [[Iraqi Kurdistan]], and its original area also spreads into south-eastern [[Turkey]] and north-western [[Iran]], corresponding to ancient [[Assyria]]. Its hierarchy is composed of [[metropolitan bishop]]s and [[diocesan bishop]]s, while lower clergy consists of [[priest]]s and [[deacon]]s, who serve in dioceses (eparchies) and parishes throughout the [[Middle East]], [[India]], [[North America]], [[Oceania]], and [[Europe]] (including the [[Caucasus]] and [[Russia]]).<ref>{{Cite book|ref=harv|last=Hunter|first=Erica C. D.|chapter=The Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East|editor-last=Leustean|editor-first=Lucian N.|title=Eastern Christianity and Politics in the Twenty-First Century|date=2014|location=London-New York|publisher=Routledge|pages=601–620|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zt2vAwAAQBAJ|isbn=9781317818663}}</ref>
The [[Ancient Church of the East]] distinguished itself from the [[Assyrian Church of the East]] in 1964. It is one of the [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] churches that claim continuity with the historical [[Patriarchate of Seleucia-Ctesiphon]] – the Church of the East, one of the oldest Christian churches in Mesopotamia.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cnewa.us/default.aspx?ID=1&pagetypeID=9&sitecode=HQ&pageno=1 |title=CNEWA: Ronald G. Roberson, C.S.P. - The Assyrian Church of the East |access-date=15 August 2018 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6BmOPqacA?url=http://www.cnewa.us/default.aspx?ID=1 |archive-date=29 October 2012 |dead-url=yes |df=dmy-all }}</ref>
===Protestantism===
{{Main|Protestantism}}
{{Protestantism}}
In the 16th century, [[Martin Luther]], and subsequently [[Huldrych Zwingli]] and [[John Calvin]], inaugurated what has come to be called [[Protestantism]]. Luther's primary theological heirs are known as [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]]. Zwingli and Calvin's heirs are far broader denominationally, and are broadly referred to as the [[Reformed|Reformed tradition]].<ref name="McManners251">McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity''. pp. 251–59.</ref> The oldest Protestant groups separated from the Catholic Church in the [[Protestant Reformation]], often followed by further divisions.<ref name="McManners251"/>
In the 18th century, for example, [[Methodism]] grew out of [[Anglican]] minister [[John Wesley]]'s evangelical and [[Holiness Movement|revival movement]].<ref name="Methodist Central Hall Westminster—Methodism">{{cite web|url=http://www.methodist-central-hall.org.uk/history/WhatisMethodism.htm |title=About The Methodist Church |publisher=Methodist Central Hall Westminster |accessdate=31 December 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070121041402/http://www.methodist-central-hall.org.uk/history/WhatisMethodism.htm |archivedate=21 January 2007 }}</ref> Several [[Pentecostal]] and [[Nondenominational Christianity|non-denominational churches]], which emphasize the cleansing power of the [[Holy Spirit]], in turn grew out of Methodism.<ref name="FYW—Pentecostalism">{{cite web|url = http://www.godpreach.com/christianity-pentecostal-churches/|title = Christianity: Pentecostal Churches|publisher = GodPreach, Inc.|accessdate = 31 December 2007|deadurl = yes|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20150211234057/http://www.godpreach.com/christianity-pentecostal-churches/|archivedate = 11 February 2015|df = dmy-all}}</ref> Because Methodists, Pentecostals and other evangelicals stress "accepting Jesus as your personal Lord and Savior",<ref name="CUMC Accepting Christ">{{cite web|url=http://www.cambridgechristumc.com/statementofbelief.htm |title=Statement of Belief |publisher=Cambridge Christ United Methodist Church |accessdate=31 December 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928101604/http://www.cambridgechristumc.com/statementofbelief.htm |archivedate=28 September 2007 |df=dmy }}</ref> which comes from Wesley's emphasis of the [[Born again (Christianity)|New Birth]],<ref name="UMC GBGM-The New Birth">{{cite web|url=http://new.gbgm-umc.org/umhistory/wesley/sermons/45/ |title=The New Birth by John Wesley (Sermon 45) |publisher=The United Methodist Church GBGM |accessdate=31 December 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070913232442/http://new.gbgm-umc.org/umhistory/wesley/sermons/45/ |archivedate=13 September 2007 |df=dmy }}</ref> they often refer to themselves as being [[Born again Christianity|born-again]].<ref name="UMC GBGM-Grace">{{cite web|url=http://gbgm-umc.org/umw/wesley/walk.stm |title=God's Preparing, Accepting, and Sustaining Grace |publisher=The United Methodist Church GBGM |accessdate=31 December 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080109013416/http://gbgm-umc.org/UMW/Wesley/walk.stm |archivedate=9 January 2008 |df=dmy }}</ref><ref name="Warren Wilson College—Total Experience of the Spirit">{{cite web|url=http://www.warren-wilson.edu/~religion/newifo/religions/christianity/index/pentecostal/essay.shtml |title=Total Experience of the Spirit |publisher=Warren Wilson College |accessdate=31 December 2007 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060903030820/http://www.warren-wilson.edu/~religion/newifo/religions/christianity/index/pentecostal/essay.shtml |archivedate=3 September 2006 |df=dmy }}</ref>
Estimates of the total number of Protestants are very uncertain, but it seems clear that Protestantism is the second largest major group of Christians after Catholicism in number of followers (although the Eastern Orthodox Church is larger than any single Protestant denomination).<ref name="Adherents" /> Often that number is put at more than 800 million, corresponding to nearly 40% of world's Christians.<ref name="pewforum1">{{cite web|url=http://www.pewforum.org/files/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf |title=Pewforum: Christianity (2010) |format=PDF|accessdate=14 May 2014}}</ref> The majority of Protestants are members of just a handful of denominational families, i.e. [[Adventism|Adventists]], [[Anglicanism|Anglicans]], [[Baptists]], [[Calvinism|Reformed (Calvinists)]],<ref>This branch was first called Calvinism by Lutherans who opposed it, and many within the tradition would prefer to use the word ''Reformed''. It includes [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterians]] and [[Congregational church|Congregationalists]].</ref> [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]], [[Methodism|Methodists]] and [[Pentecostalism|Pentecostals]].<ref name="pewforum1"/> [[Nondenominational Christianity|Nondenominational]], [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]], [[Charismatic Movement|charismatic]], [[Neo-charismatic churches|neo-charismatic]], independent and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity.<ref>[http://www.oikoumene.org/en/church-families/evangelical-churches World Council of Churches: Evangelical churches]: "Evangelical churches have grown exponentially in the second half of the 20th century and continue to show great vitality, especially in the global South. This resurgence may in part be explained by the phenomenal growth of Pentecostalism and the emergence of the charismatic movement, which are closely associated with evangelicalism. However, there can be no doubt that the evangelical tradition "per se" has become one of the major components of world Christianity. Evangelicals also constitute sizable minorities in the traditional Protestant and Anglican churches. In regions like Africa and Latin America, the boundaries between "evangelical" and "mainline" are rapidly changing and giving way to new ecclesial realities."</ref>
A special grouping are the Anglican churches descended from the [[Church of England]] and organized in the [[Anglican Communion]]. Some Anglican churches consider themselves both Protestant and Catholic.<ref>Sykes/Booty/Knight. ''The Study of Anglicanism'', p. 219.</ref> Some Anglicans consider their church a [[Branch theory|branch of the "One Holy Catholic Church"]] alongside of the Catholic and Eastern Orthodox churches, a concept rejected by the Catholic Church, some Eastern Orthodox, and many [[evangelical Anglican]]s themselves.<ref>Gregory Hallam, ''[http://www.orthodoxresearchinstitute.org/articles/ecumenical/hallam_orthodoxy_ecumenism.htm Orthodoxy and Ecumenism]''.</ref><ref>Gregory Mathewes-Green, "[http://www.westernorthodox.com/branch.html Whither the Branch Theory?]", ''Anglican Orthodox Pilgrim'' Vol. 2, No. 4. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120519104645/http://www.westernorthodox.com/branch.html |date=19 May 2012 }}</ref>
While the Anglican, Lutheran and the Reformed branches of Protestantism originated in the [[Magisterial Reformation]], other groups such as the [[Anabaptists]], who often do not consider themselves to be Protestant, originated in the [[Radical Reformation]], and are distinguished by their rejection of infant baptism; they believe in baptism only of adult believers — [[credobaptism]] (Anabaptists include the [[Amish]], [[Apostolic Christian Church|Apostolic]], [[Bruderhof Communities|Bruderhof]], [[Mennonites]], [[Hutterites]] and [[Schwarzenau Brethren]]/[[German Baptist]] groups.)<ref name="BenedettoDuke2008">{{cite book|last1=Benedetto|first1=Robert|last2=Duke|first2=James O.|title=The New Westminster Dictionary of Church History|year=2008|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=9780664224165|page=22}}</ref><ref name="Littell2000">{{cite book|last=Littell|first=Franklin H.|title=The Anabaptist View of the Church|year=2000|publisher=The Baptist Standard Bearer, Inc.|language=English|isbn=9781579788360|page=79|quote=In reviewing the records, the reader is struck with the Anabaptists' acute consciousness of separation from the "fallen" church — in which they included the Reformers as well as the Roman institution. Some writers have therefore concluded that Anabaptism is not merely a variant form of Protestantism, but rather an ideology and practice quite different in kind from those of both Rome and the Reformers.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://mennoniteusa.org/who-we-are/|title=Who We Are: A Quick Visual Guide|year=2018|publisher=Mennonite Church USA|language=English|accessdate=26 April 2018|quote=Anabaptists: We are neither Catholic nor Protestant, but we share ties to those streams of Christianity. We cooperate as a sign of our unity in Christ and in ways that extend the reign of God’s Kingdom on earth. We are known as “Anabaptists” (not anti-Baptist) — meaning “rebaptizers.”}}</ref>
Some groups of individuals who hold basic Protestant tenets identify themselves simply as "Christians" or "[[born-again]] Christians". They typically distance themselves from the [[confessionalism (religion)|confessionalism]] and [[creed]]alism of other Christian communities<ref>Confessionalism is a term employed by historians to refer to "the creation of fixed identities and systems of beliefs for separate churches which had previously been more fluid in their self-understanding, and which had not begun by seeking separate identities for themselves—they had wanted to be truly Catholic and reformed." (MacCulloch, ''The Reformation: A History'', p. xxiv.)</ref> by calling themselves "[[Non-denominational Christianity|non-denominational]]" or "[[evangelical]]". Often founded by individual pastors, they have little affiliation with historic denominations.<ref name="Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life / U.S. Religious Landscape Survey">{{cite web|url =http://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report2religious-landscape-study-appendix3.pdf |title = Classification of Protestant Denominations|publisher = Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life / U.S. Religious Landscape Survey|accessdate = 27 September 2009}}</ref>
[[File:Protestant branches.svg|thumb|upright=2.95|left|Historical chart of the main Protestant branches]]
[[File:Interdenominational movements & other Protestant developments.svg|thumb|upright=2.95|right|Links between interdenominational movements and other developments within Protestantism]]
{{clear}}
===Restorationism===
{{Main|Restorationism}}
[[File:Priesthood03080u.jpg|upright=0.8|thumb|right|A 19th-century drawing of [[Joseph Smith]] and [[Oliver Cowdery]] receiving the [[Aaronic priesthood (Latter Day Saints)|Aaronic priesthood]] from [[John the Baptist]]. [[Latter Day Saint movement|Latter Day Saints]] believe that the [[Priest#Christianity|Priesthood]] ceased to exist after the death of the [[Apostle (Christian)|Apostles]] and therefore needed to be [[Restoration (Latter Day Saints)|restored]].]]
The [[Second Great Awakening]], a period of religious revival that occurred in the United States during the early 1800s, saw the development of a number of unrelated churches. They generally saw themselves as [[Restorationism|restoring]] the original church of Jesus Christ rather than reforming one of the existing churches.<ref>McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', p. 91f.</ref> A common belief held by Restorationists was that the other divisions of Christianity had introduced doctrinal defects into Christianity, which was known as the [[Great Apostasy]].<ref name="Religious Tolerance—Restorationism">{{cite web|url = http://www.religioustolerance.org/chrrest.htm| title = The Restorationist Movements|publisher = Religious Tolerance|accessdate = 31 December 2007}}</ref> In Asia, [[Iglesia ni Cristo]] is a known restorationist religion that was established during the early 1900s.
Some of the churches originating during this period are historically connected to early 19th-century camp meetings in the Midwest and Upstate New York. One of the largest churches produced from the movement is [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.mormonnewsroom.org/facts-and-statistics|title=LDS Statistics and Church Facts {{!}} Total Church Membership|work=www.mormonnewsroom.org|access-date=2018-04-27|language=en}}</ref> American [[Millennialism]] and [[Adventism]], which arose from Evangelical Protestantism, influenced the [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] movement and, as a reaction specifically to [[William Miller (preacher)|William Miller]], the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]]. Others, including the [[Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)]], [[Evangelical Christian Church in Canada]],<ref>Sydney E. Ahlstrom, ''A Religious History of the American People'' (2004)</ref><ref>Melton's Encyclopedia of American Religions (2009)</ref> [[Churches of Christ]], and the [[Christian churches and churches of Christ]], have their roots in the contemporaneous Stone-Campbell [[Restoration Movement]], which was centered in Kentucky and Tennessee. Other groups originating in this time period include the [[Christadelphians]] and the previously mentioned [[Latter Day Saint movement]]. While the churches originating in the Second Great Awakening have some superficial similarities, their doctrine and practices vary significantly.
===Other===
Various smaller [[Independent Catholic]] communities, such as the [[Old Catholic Church]], include the word ''[[Catholic (term)|Catholic]]'' in their title, and arguably have more or less liturgical practices in common with the [[Catholic Church]], but are no longer in [[full communion]] with the [[Holy See]].
[[Spiritual Christians]], such as the [[Doukhobor]] and [[Molokan]], broke from the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] and maintain close association with Mennonites and [[Quakers]] due to similar religious practices; all of these groups are furthermore collectively considered to be [[peace churches]] due to their belief in [[Christian pacifism|pacifism]].<ref name="Fahlbusch2008">{{cite book|last=Fahlbusch|first=Erwin|title=The Encyclodedia of Christianity|date=14 February 2008|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|language=English |isbn=9780802824172|page=208}}</ref><ref name="FlemingRowan2004">{{cite book|last1=Fleming|first1=John A.|last2=Rowan|first2=Michael J.|last3=Chambers|first3=James Albert|title=Folk Furniture of Canada's Doukhobors, Hutterites, Mennonites and Ukrainians|year=2004|publisher=University of Alberta|language=English |isbn=9780888644183|page=4|quote=The English Quakers, who had made contact with the Doukhobors earlier, as well as the Philadelphia Society of Friends, also determined to help with their emigration from Russia to some other country--the only action which seemed possible.}}</ref>
[[Messianic Judaism]] (or Messianic Movement) is the name of a Christian movement comprising a number of streams, whose members may consider themselves Jewish. The movement originated in the 1960s and 1970s, and it blends elements of religious Jewish practice with evangelical Christianity. Messianic Judaism affirms Christian creeds such as the messiahship and divinity of "Yeshua" (the Hebrew name of Jesus) and the Triune Nature of God, while also adhering to some Jewish dietary laws and customs.<ref name=Ariel2006p208>{{Cite book
|last = Ariel
|first = Yaakov<!--NOT the Yaakov Ariel with a Wikipedia entry-->
|editor1-last=Gallagher
|editor1-first=Eugene V.
|editor2-last=Ashcraft
|editor2-first=W. Michael
|title= Jewish and Christian Traditions
|accessdate= September 9, 2015
|series= Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America
|volume= 2
|year= 2006
|publisher= [[Greenwood Publishing Group]]
|location= [[Westport, Connecticut|Westport, Conn]]
|isbn= 978-0-275-98714-5
|oclc= 315689134
|page= 208
|chapter= Judaism and Christianity Unite! The Unique Culture of Messianic Judaism
|chapterurl= https://books.google.com/books?id=oZiScvbS6-cC&pg=RA1-PA208
|quote = For example, Messianic Jews, without exception, believe that the way to eternal life is through the acceptance of Jesus as one's personal savior and that no obedience to the Jewish law or "works" is necessary in order to obtain that goal.…Remarkably, it has been exactly this adherence to the basic Christian evangelical faith that has allowed Messianic Jews to adopt and promote Jewish rites and customs. They are Christians in good standing and can retain whatever cultural attributes and rites they choose.
|lccn = 2006022954}}
</ref>
[[Esoteric Christianity|Esoteric Christians]] regard Christianity as a [[Western esotericism|mystery religion]],<ref>Western Esotericism and the Science of Religion: Selected Papers Presented at the 17th Congress</ref><ref name="Besant 2001">{{cite book | last = Besant | first = Annie | title = Esoteric Christianity or the Lesser Mysteries | publisher = Adamant Media Corporation | location = City | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-1-4021-0029-1 }}</ref> and profess the existence and possession of certain [[Esotericism|esoteric]] doctrines or practices,<ref>From the Greek ἐσωτερικός (esôterikos, "inner"). The term [[esotericism]] itself was coined in the 17th century. (Oxford English Dictionary Compact Edition, Volume 1, Oxford University Press, 1971, p. 894.)</ref><ref>Wouter J. Hanegraaff, Antoine Faivre, [[Roelof van den Broek]], Jean-Pierre Brach, Dictionary of Gnosis & Western Esotericism, Brill 2005.</ref> hidden from the public but accessible only to a narrow circle of "enlightened", "initiated", or highly educated people.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.webster.com/dictionary/esotericism |title=Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary: esotericism |publisher=Webster.com |date=13 August 2010 |accessdate=19 November 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.webster.com/dictionary/esoteric |title=Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary: esoteric |publisher=Webster.com|accessdate=19 November 2010}}</ref> Some of the esoteric Christian institutions include the [[Rosicrucian Fellowship]], the [[Anthroposophical Society]] and [[Martinism]].
==Culture==
{{Main|Christian culture|Role of Christianity in civilization}}
{{Further|Protestant culture|Cultural Christian|Christian influences in Islam}}
[[File:Collage-Christian-culture.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Set of pictures showcasing Christian culture and famous Christian leaders]]
[[Western culture]], throughout most of its history, has been nearly equivalent to [[Christian culture]], and a large portion of the population of the Western hemisphere can be described as cultural Christians. The notion of "[[Europe]]" and the "[[Western World]]" has been intimately connected with the concept of "[[Christendom|Christianity and Christendom]]" many even attribute Christianity for being the link that created a unified [[European identity]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Dawson|first=Christopher|title=Crisis in Western Education|year=1961|isbn=9780813216836|edition=reprint|author2=Glenn Olsen|page=108}}</ref>
Though Western culture contained several polytheistic religions during its early years under the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Roman Empire|Roman empires]], as the centralized Roman power waned, the dominance of the Catholic Church was the only consistent force in Europe.<ref name="autogenerated1994">{{cite book|last=Koch|first=Carl|title=The Catholic Church: Journey, Wisdom, and Mission|year=1994|publisher=St. Mary's Press|location=Early Middle Ages|isbn=978-0-88489-298-4}}</ref> Until the [[Age of Enlightenment]],<ref>{{cite book|last=Koch|first=Carl|title=The Catholic Church: Journey, Wisdom, and Mission|year=1994|publisher=St. Mary's Press|location=The Age of Enlightenment|isbn=978-0-88489-298-4}}</ref> [[Christian culture]] guided the course of [[philosophy]], [[literature]], [[art]], [[music]] and [[science]].<ref name="autogenerated1994"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Dawson|first=Christopher|title=Crisis in Western Education|year=1961|isbn=978-0-8132-1683-6|edition=reprint|first2=Glenn |last2=Olsen}}</ref> Christian disciplines of the respective arts have subsequently developed into [[Christian philosophy]], [[Christian art]], [[Christian music]], [[Christian literature]] etc.
Christianity has had a significant impact on [[education]] as the church created the bases of the Western system of education,<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/115240/Christianity/67592/Forms-of-Christian-education Encyclopædia Britannica] Forms of Christian education</ref> and was the sponsor of founding [[Medieval university|universities]] in the [[Western world]]; as the [[university]] is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the [[History of Christianity|Medieval Christian]] setting.<ref name="Rüegg, Walter 1992, pp. XIX"/><ref name=verger1999 /> Historically, Christianity has often been a patron of [[science]] and [[medicine]]. It has been prolific in the foundation of [[schools]], [[universities]] and [[hospitals]], and many [[List of Catholic cleric-scientists|Catholic clergy]];<ref name="Hough p68">{{citation|title=Richter's Scale: Measure of an Earthquake, Measure of a Man|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rvmDeAxEiO8C&pg=PA68|first=Susan Elizabeth|last=Hough|authorlink=Susan Hough|year=2007|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|isbn=978-0-691-12807-8|page=68}}</ref> [[List of Jesuit scientists|Jesuits]] in particular,{{Sfn|Woods|2005|p=109}}<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/302999/Jesuit Encyclopædia Britannica] Jesuit</ref> have been active in the sciences throughout history and have made significant contributions to the [[Christian attitudes towards science|development of science]].<ref>Wallace, William A. (1984). ''Prelude, Galileo and his Sources. The Heritage of the Collegio Romano in Galileo's Science''. N.J.: Princeton University Press.</ref> [[Protestantism]] also has had an important influence on science. According to the [[Merton Thesis]], there was a positive [[correlation]] between the rise of English [[Puritanism]] and German [[Pietism]] on the one hand and early [[experimental science]] on the other.<ref name=sztompka2003>Sztompka, 2003</ref> The Civilizing influence of Christianity includes [[social welfare]],<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/115240/Christianity/67594/Church-and-social-welfare Encyclopædia Britannica] Church and social welfare</ref> founding [[hospitals]],<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/115240/Christianity/67597/Care-for-the-sick Encyclopædia Britannica] Care for the sick</ref> [[economics]] (as the [[Protestant work ethic]]),<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/115240/Christianity/67599/Property-poverty-and-the-poor Encyclopædia Britannica] Property, poverty, and the poor,</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Weber|first=Max|title=The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism|year=1905}}</ref> [[politics]],<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/115240/Christianity/67577/Church-and-state Encyclopædia Britannica] Church and state</ref> [[architecture]],<ref name= BF>Sir [[Banister Fletcher]], ''History of Architecture on the Comparative Method''.</ref> [[literature]],<ref>Buringh, Eltjo; van Zanden, Jan Luiten: "Charting the 'Rise of the West': Manuscripts and Printed Books in Europe, A Long-Term Perspective from the Sixth through Eighteenth Centuries", ''The Journal of Economic History'', Vol. 69, No. 2 (2009), pp. 409–445 (416, table 1)</ref> [[Ablution in Christianity|personal hygiene]],<ref>{{cite book|author=Eveleigh, Bogs|title=Baths and Basins: The Story of Domestic Sanitation|publisher=Stroud, England: Sutton|year=2002}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Henry Gariepy|title=Christianity in Action: The History of the International Salvation Army|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vcdEs3EAAkUC|year=2009|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=978-0-8028-4841-3|page=16}}</ref> and [[family]] life.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/115240/Christianity/67603/The-tendency-to-spiritualize-and-individualize-marriage Encyclopædia Britannica] The tendency to spiritualize and individualize marriage</ref>
[[Eastern Christians]] (particularly [[Nestorianism|Nestorian]] [[Christians]]) contributed to the Arab [[Islamic Golden Age|Islamic Civilization]] during the reign of the [[Ummayads|Ummayad]] and the [[Abbasids|Abbasid]] by translating works of [[Greek philosophers]] to [[Syriac language|Syriac]] and afterwards to [[Arabic language|Arabic]].<ref>Hill, Donald. ''Islamic Science and Engineering''. 1993. Edinburgh Univ. Press. {{ISBN|0-7486-0455-3}}, p.4</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The Legend of the Middle Ages|author=Brague, Rémi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c8YjEkLPXNYC|isbn=978-0-226-07080-3|page=164|date=15 April 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Kitty Ferguson|title=Pythagoras: His Lives and the Legacy of a Rational Universe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=trM7NJz011oC&pg=PT100|year=2011|publisher=Icon Books Limited|isbn=978-1-84831-250-0|page=100|quote=It was in the Near and Middle East and North Africa that the old traditions of teaching and learning continued, and where Christian scholars were carefully preserving ancient texts and knowledge of the ancient Greek language}}</ref> They also excelled in [[philosophy]], [[science]], [[theology]] and [[medicine]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Kaser|first=Karl|title=The Balkans and the Near East: Introduction to a Shared History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j3i8muwLf8AC&pg=PA137|year=2011|publisher=LIT Verlag Münster|isbn=978-3-643-50190-5|page=135}}</ref><ref>Rémi Brague, [http://www.christiansofiraq.com/assyriancontributionstotheislamiccivilization.htm Assyrians contributions to the Islamic civilization]</ref><ref>Britannica, [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/409819/Nestorian Nestorian]</ref> And many scholars of the [[House of Wisdom]] were of Christian background.<ref>Hyman and Walsh ''Philosophy in the Middle Ages'' Indianapolis, 1973, p. 204' Meri, Josef W. and Jere L. Bacharach, Editors, ''Medieval Islamic Civilization'' Vol.1, A-K, Index, 2006, p. 304.</ref>
[[Lists of Christians|Christians]] have made a myriad of contributions to [[Progress (history)|human progress]] in a broad and diverse range of fields,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adherents.com/adh_influ.html|title=Religion of History's 100 Most Influential People}}</ref> including [[Christian philosophy|philosophy]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adherents.com/adh_phil.html|title=Religion of Great Philosophers}}</ref> [[List of Christians in science and technology|science and technology]],<ref name="Hough p68"/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rae.org/influsci.html|title=Christian Influences In The Sciences<!-- Bot generated title -->|website=rae.org|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924084347/http://www.rae.org/influsci.html|archivedate=24 September 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://creationsafaris.com/wgcs_1.htm|title=World's Greatest Creation Scientists from Y1K to Y2K|website=creationsafaris.com|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160115053801/http://www.creationsafaris.com/wgcs_1.htm|archivedate=15 January 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adherents.com/people/100_scientists.html|title=100 Scientists Who Shaped World History}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adherents.com/people/100_Nobel.html|title=50 Nobel Laureates and Other Great Scientists Who Believe in God}} Many well-known historical figures who influenced Western science considered themselves Christian such as [[Nicolaus Copernicus]], [[Galileo Galilei]], [[Johannes Kepler]], [[Isaac Newton]], [[Robert Boyle]], [[Alessandro Volta]], [[Michael Faraday]], [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin]] and [[James Clerk Maxwell]].</ref> [[List of Catholic Church artists|fine arts and architecture]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adherents.com/people/adh_art.html|title=Religious Affiliation of the World's Greatest Artists}}</ref> [[politics]], [[List of Catholic authors|literatures]], [[Christian Music|music]],<ref name="Hall100">Hall, p. 100.</ref> and [[business]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adherents.com/people/100_business.html|title=Wealthy 100 and the 100 Most Influential in Business}}</ref> According to ''100 Years of Nobel Prizes'' a review of Nobel prizes award between 1901 and 2000 reveals that (65.4%) of [[Nobel Prizes]] Laureates, [[List of Christian Nobel laureates|have identified Christianity]] in its various forms as their religious preference.<ref name="Nobel Prize">Baruch A. Shalev, ''100 Years of Nobel Prizes'' (2003), Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, p.57: between 1901 and 2000 reveals that 654 Laureates belong to 28 different religions. Most (65.4%) have identified Christianity in its various forms as their religious preference. {{ISBN|978-0935047370}}</ref>
''[[Postchristianity]]''<ref>G.C. Oosthuizen. ''Postchristianity in Africa''. C Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd (31 December 1968). {{ISBN|0-903983-05-2}}</ref> is the term for the decline of Christianity, particularly [[Christianity in Europe|in Europe]], [[Religion in Canada|Canada]], [[Christianity in Australia|Australia]] and to a minor degree the [[Southern Cone]], in the 20th and 21st centuries, considered in terms of [[postmodernism]]. It refers to the loss of Christianity's monopoly on [[values]] and [[world view]] in historically Christian societies.
[[Cultural Christian]]s are secular people with a Christian heritage who may not believe in the religious claims of Christianity, but who retain an affinity for the [[Christian pop culture|popular culture]], art, [[Christian music|music]] and so on related to it. Another frequent application of the term is to distinguish political groups in areas of mixed religious backgrounds.
==Ecumenism==
{{Main|Ecumenism}}
[[File:Taizé prayer.JPG|thumb|left|Ecumenical worship service at the [[monastery]] of [[Taizé]] in France]]
Christian groups and denominations have long expressed ideals of being reconciled, and in the 20th century, Christian [[ecumenism]] advanced in two ways.<ref name="McManners581">McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', pp. 581–84.</ref> One way was greater cooperation between groups, such as the [[World Evangelical Alliance]] founded in 1846 in London or the [[Edinburgh Missionary Conference]] of Protestants in 1910, the Justice, Peace and Creation Commission of the [[World Council of Churches]] founded in 1948 by Protestant and Orthodox churches, and similar national councils like the [[National Council of Churches in Australia]] which includes Catholics.<ref name="McManners581"/>
The other way was institutional union with [[United and uniting churches]], a practice that can be traced back to unions between Lutherans and Calvinists in early 19th-century Germany. Congregationalist, Methodist and Presbyterian churches united in 1925 to form the [[United Church of Canada]],<ref>McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity''. p. 413f.</ref> and in 1977 to form the [[Uniting Church in Australia]]. The [[Church of South India]] was formed in 1947 by the union of Anglican, Baptist, Methodist, Congregationalist and Presbyterian churches.<ref>McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', p. 498.</ref>
The ecumenical, [[monasticism|monastic]] [[Taizé Community]] is notable for being composed of more than one hundred [[monk|brothers]] from Protestant and Catholic traditions.<ref name="taize">{{cite book|title=The Oxford companion to Christian thought|date=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-860024-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ognCKztR8a4C&pg=PA694|page=694}}</ref> The community emphasizes the reconciliation of all denominations and its main church, located in [[Taizé, Saône-et-Loire]], France, is named the "Church of Reconciliation".<ref name="taize" /> The community is internationally known, attracting over 100,000 young pilgrims annually.<ref>Oxford, "Encyclopedia Of Christianity, pg. 307.</ref>
Steps towards reconciliation on a global level were taken in 1965 by the Catholic and Orthodox churches mutually revoking the excommunications that marked their [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]] in 1054;<ref>McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', p. 373.</ref> the [[Anglican Catholic International Commission]] (ARCIC) working towards full communion between those churches since 1970;<ref>McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', p. 583.</ref> and some [[Lutheran World Federation|Lutheran]] and Catholic churches signing the [[Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification]] in 1999 to address conflicts at the root of the Protestant Reformation. In 2006, the [[World Methodist Council]], representing all Methodist denominations, adopted the declaration.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lutheranworld.org/What_We_Do/OEA/Methodist-Statement-2006-EN.pdf |title=Methodist Statement |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=19 November 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100116215437/http://www.lutheranworld.org/What_We_Do/OEA/Methodist-Statement-2006-EN.pdf |archivedate=16 January 2010 }}</ref>
== Criticism, persecution, and apologetics ==
{{Main|Christian apologetics|Criticism of Christianity|Persecution of Christians}}
[[File:SummaTheologiae.jpg|upright=0.9|thumb|right|A copy of the ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', a famous Christian apologetic work]]
Criticism of Christianity and Christians goes back to the [[Apostolic Age]], with the New Testament recording friction between the followers of Jesus and the [[Pharisees]] and [[scribes]] (e.g. {{Bibleref||Matthew|15:1–20|NIV}} and {{Bibleref||Mark|7:1–23|NIV}}).<ref>''International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E-J'' by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1982 {{ISBN|0-8028-3782-4}} page 175</ref> In the 2nd century, Christianity was criticized by the Jews on various grounds, e.g. that the prophecies of the Hebrew Bible could not have been fulfilled by Jesus, given that he did not have a successful life.<ref>''Jews and Christians: The Parting of the Ways, A.D. 70 to 135'' by James D. G. Dunn 1999 {{ISBN|0-8028-4498-7}} pages 112–113</ref> Additionally a sacrifice to remove sins in advance, for everyone or as a human being, did not fit to the Jewish sacrifice ritual, furthermore [[God in Judaism|God]] is said to judge people on their deeds instead of their beliefs.<ref>Asher Norman ''Twenty-six Reasons why Jews Don't Believe in Jesus'' Feldheim Publishers 2007 {{ISBN|978-0-977-19370-7}} page 11</ref><ref>Keith Akers The Lost Religion of Jesus: Simple Living and Nonviolence in Early Christianity'' Lantern Books 2000 {{ISBN|978-1-930-05126-3}} page 103</ref> One of the first comprehensive attacks on Christianity came from the Greek philosopher [[Celsus]], who wrote ''[[The True Word]]'', a polemic criticizing Christians as being unprofitable members of society.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ferguson|first1=Everett|title=Backgrounds of Early Christianity|date=1993|publisher=William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company|location=Grand Rapids, Michigan|isbn=978-0-8028-0669-7|pages=562–564|edition=second}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Thomas|first=Stephen|date=2004|chapter=Celsus|title=The Westminster Handbook to Origen|location=Louisville, Kentucky|editor-last=McGuckin|editor-first=John Anthony|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=978-0-664-22472-1|pages=72–73|ref=harv}}</ref><ref name="Olson1999"/> In response, the church father [[Origen]] published his treatise ''[[Contra Celsum]]'', or ''Against Celsus'', a seminal work of Christian apologetics, which systematically addressed Celsus's criticisms and helped bring Christianity a level of academic respectability.<ref>{{cite book|last=McGuckin|first=John Anthony|date=2004|chapter=The Scholarly Works of Origen|title=The Westminster Handbook to Origen|url=https://books.google.com/?id=riEdrWEDFq0C&pg=PA13&dq=Origen+ordination#v=onepage&q=Origen%20ordination&f=false|location=Louisville, Kentucky|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=978-0-664-22472-1|pages=32–34|ref=harv}}</ref><ref name="Olson1999">{{citation|last=Olson|first=Roger E.|date=1999|title=The Story of Christian Theology: Twenty Centuries of Tradition & Reform|url=https://books.google.com/?id=zexBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA100|location=Downers Grove, Illinois|publisher=InterVarsity Press|isbn=978-0-8308-1505-0|page=101|ref=harv}}</ref>
By the 3rd century, criticism of Christianity had mounted, partly as a defense against it. Wild rumors about Christians were widely circulated, claiming that they were [[atheism|atheists]] and that, as part of their rituals, they devoured human infants and engaged in incestuous orgies.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Ferguson|first1=Everett|title=Backgrounds of Early Christianity|date=1993|publisher=William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company|location=Grand Rapids, Michigan|isbn=978-0-8028-0669-7|pages=556–561|edition=second}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Sherwin-White|first1=A. N.|title=Why Were the Early Christians Persecuted? -- An Amendment|journal=Past and Present|volume=27|date=April 1964|issue=27|pages=23–27|jstor=649759|doi=10.1093/past/27.1.23}}</ref> The [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonist]] philosopher [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]] wrote the fifteen-volume ''Adversus Christianos'' as a comprehensive attack on Christianity, in part building on the teachings of [[Plotinus]].<ref>''The Encyclopedia of Christian Literature, Volume 1'' by George Thomas Kurian and James Smith 2010 {{ISBN|0-8108-6987-X}} page 527</ref><ref>''Apologetic Discourse and the Scribal Tradition'' by Wayne Campbell Kannaday 2005 {{ISBN|90-04-13085-3}} pages 32–33</ref>
By the 12th century, the [[Mishneh Torah]] (i.e., [[Rabbi]] [[Moses Maimonides]]) was criticizing Christianity on the grounds of idol worship, in that Christians attributed divinity to Jesus who had a physical body.<ref>''A Dictionary Of Jewish-Christian Relations'' by Edward Kessler, Neil Wenborn 2005 {{ISBN|0-521-82692-6}} page 168</ref> In the 19th century, [[Nietzsche]] began to write a series of polemics on the "unnatural" teachings of Christianity (e.g. sexual abstinence), and continued his criticism of Christianity to the end of his life.<ref>''The Cambridge Companion to Nietzsche'' by Bernd Magnus, Kathleen Marie Higgins 1996 {{ISBN|0-521-36767-0}} pages 90–93</ref> In the 20th century, the philosopher [[Bertrand Russell]] expressed his criticism of Christianity in ''[[Why I Am Not a Christian]]'', formulating his rejection of Christianity in the setting of logical arguments.<ref>''Russell on Religion: Selections from the Writings of Bertrand Russell'' by Bertrand Russell, Stefan Andersson and Louis Greenspan 1999 {{ISBN|0-415-18091-0}} pages 77–87</ref>
Criticism of Christianity continues to date, e.g. [[Jewish]] and [[Muslim]] theologians criticize the doctrine of the [[Trinity]] held by most Christians, stating that this doctrine in effect assumes that there are three Gods, running against the basic tenet of [[monotheism]].<ref>''Christianity: An Introduction'' by Alister E. McGrath 2006 {{ISBN|1-4051-0899-1}} pp. 125–126.</ref> New Testament scholar [[Robert M. Price]] has outlined the possibility that some Bible stories are based partly on myth in "The Christ Myth Theory and its problems".<ref>" The Christ Myth Theory and its Problems ", published 2011 by American Atheist press, Cranford, New Jersey, {{ISBN|1-57884-017-1}}</ref>
Christian apologetics aims to present a [[reason|rational]] basis for Christianity. The word "apologetic" comes from the Greek verb "apologeomai", meaning "to speak in defense of"<ref>[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aalphabetic+letter%3D*a%3Aentry+group%3D263%3Aentry%3Da%29pologe%2Fomai Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon, απολογέομαι (1)]</ref>. Christian apologetics has taken many forms over the centuries, starting with Paul the Apostle. The philosopher [[Thomas Aquinas]] presented five arguments for God's existence in the ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', while his ''[[Summa contra Gentiles]]'' was a major apologetic work.<ref>{{cite book|last=Dulles|first=Avery Robert Cardinal|title=A History of Apologetics|year=2005|publisher=Ignatius Press|location=San Francisco|isbn=978-0-89870-933-9|page=120}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Classical Readings in Christian Apologetics|year=1983|publisher=Zondervan|location=Grand Rapids|isbn=978-0-310-45641-4|editor=L Russ Bush|page=275}}</ref> Another famous apologist, [[G. K. Chesterton]], wrote in the early twentieth century about the benefits of religion and, specifically, Christianity. Famous for his use of paradox, Chesterton explained that while Christianity had the most mysteries, it was the most practical religion.<ref>(http://www.chesterton.org/why-i-believe-in-christianity/)</ref><ref>{{cite journal|author=Hauser, Chris (History major, Dartmouth College class of 2014)|date=Fall 2011|title=Faith and Paradox: G.K. Chesterton's Philosophy of Christian Paradox|journal=[[Dartmouth College publications#The Dartmouth Apologia|The Dartmouth Apologia: A Journal of Christian Thought]]|volume=6|issue=1|pages=16–20|url=http://issuu.com/apologia/docs/apol11sv25|accessdate=29 March 2015}}</ref> He pointed to the [[Role of the Christian Church in civilization|advance of Christian civilizations]] as proof of its practicality.<ref name="chesterton.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.chesterton.org/why-i-believe-in-christianity/|title=Christianity|date=6 December 2010}}</ref> The physicist and priest [[John Polkinghorne]], in his ''[[Questions of Truth]]'' discusses the subject of [[religion and science]], a topic that other Christian apologists such as [[Ravi Zacharias]], [[John Lennox]] and [[William Lane Craig]] have engaged, with the latter two men opining that the [[Religious interpretations of the Big Bang theory|inflationary Big Bang model]] is evidence for the [[existence of God]].<ref name="Howson2011">{{cite book|last=Howson|first=Colin|title=Objecting to God|date=28 July 2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781139498562|page=92|quote=Nor is the agreement coincidental, according to a substantial constituency of religious apologists, who regard the inflationary Big Bang model as direct evidence for God. John Lennox, a mathematician at the University of Oxford, tells us that 'even if the non-believers don't like it, the Big Bang fits in exactly with the Christian narrative of creation'. ... William Lane Craig is another who claims that the Biblical account is corroborated by Big Bang cosmology. Lane Craig also claims that there is a prior ''proof'' that there is a God who created this universe.}}</ref>
==See also==
{{Wikipedia books
|1=Abrahamic religions
|3=Christianity
|5=Christianity: A History
}}
* [[Christian mythology]]
* [[Christianity and politics]]
* [[Christianity and Theosophy]]
* [[Church architecture]]
* [[Manichaeism]]
* [[One true church]]
* [[Outline of Christianity]]
{{Portal bar|Christianity|Religion|Spirituality}}
==Notes==
{{reflist|group="note"}}
==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}
===Bibliography===
{{Refbegin|30em}}<!-- ?-marks = citations needing more info, like ISBN, etc. -->
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* Barrett, David; Kurian, Tom and others. (ed.). ''World Christian Encyclopedia''. Oxford University Press (2001).
* Barry, John F. ''One Faith, One Lord: A Study of Basic Catholic Belief''. William H. Sadlier (2001). {{ISBN|0-8215-2207-8}}
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* [[Bettenson, Henry]] (ed.). ''Documents of the Christian Church''. Oxford University Press (1943).
* {{cite book|last=Bokenkotter|first=Thomas|title=A Concise History of the Catholic Church|publisher=Doubleday|year=2004|isbn=978-0-385-50584-0|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Browning|first=Robert|title=The Byzantine Empire|location=Washington, DC|publisher=The Catholic University of America Press|year=1992|isbn=978-0-8132-0754-4|ref=harv}}
* Bruce, F.F. ''The Canon of Scripture''.<!-- ? -->
* {{cite book|last=Cameron|first=Averil|authorlink=Averil Cameron|title=The Byzantines|year=2006|location=Oxford|publisher=Blackwell|isbn=978-1-4051-9833-2|ref=harv}}
* Chambers, Mortimer; Crew, Herlihy, Rabb, Woloch. ''The Western Experience. Volume II: The Early Modern Period''. Alfred A. Knopf (1974). {{ISBN|0-394-31734-3}}.
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{{Refend}}
==Further reading==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
*{{Cite book |author=Gill, Robin |authorlink= Robin Gill (priest)|title=The Cambridge companion to Christian ethics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=2001|isbn=978-0-521-77918-0}}
*{{Cite book |author=Gunton, Colin E. |title=The Cambridge companion to Christian doctrine |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |year=1997|isbn=978-0-521-47695-9}}
* MacCulloch, Diarmaid. ''Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years'' (Viking; 2010) 1,161 pages; survey by leading historian
*{{Cite book |author=MacMullen, Ramsay |title=Voting About God in Early Church Councils|publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, CT |year=2006|isbn=978-0-300-11596-3}}
*{{Cite book |author1=Padgett, Alan G. |author2=Sally Bruyneel |title=Introducing Christianity |publisher=Orbis Books |location=Maryknoll, N.Y. |year= 2003|isbn= 978-1-57075-395-4}}
*{{Cite book |author1=Price, Matthew Arlen |author2=Collins, Michael |title=The story of Christianity |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |location=New York |year=1999|isbn=978-0-7513-0467-1}}
*{{Cite book |author=[[Pope Benedict XVI|Ratzinger, Joseph]] |title=Introduction To Christianity (Communio Books) |publisher=Ignatius Press |location=San Francisco |year= 2004|isbn=978-1-58617-029-5}}
* Roper, J.C., ''Bp''. (1923), ''et al.''. ''Faith in God'', in series, ''Layman's Library of Practical Religion, Church of England in Canada'', vol. 2. Toronto, Ont.: Musson Book Co. ''N.B''.: The series statement is given in the more extended form which appears on the book's front cover.
*{{Cite book |author1=Tucker, Karen |author2=Wainwright, Geoffrey |title=The Oxford history of Christian worship |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=2006|isbn=978-0-19-513886-3}}
*{{Cite book |author=Wagner, Richard |title=Christianity for Dummies |publisher=For Dummies|year= 2004|isbn=978-0-7645-4482-8}}
*{{Cite book |author= Webb, Jeffrey B. |title=The Complete Idiot's Guide to Christianity |publisher=Alpha Books |location=Indianapolis, Ind |year= 2004|isbn= 978-1-59257-176-5 }}
* [[Garry Wills|Wills, Garry]], "A Wild and Indecent Book" (review of [[David Bentley Hart]], ''The New Testament: A Translation'', [[Yale University Press]], 577 pp.), ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXV, no. 2 (8 February 2018), pp. 34–35. Discusses some pitfalls in interpreting and translating the [[New Testament]].
*{{Cite book |author=Woodhead, Linda |title=Christianity: a very short introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |year=2004|isbn=978-0-19-280322-1}}
{{Refend}}
==External links==
{{Sister project links |b=Subject:Christianity |s=Portal:Christianity |d=Q5043 |species=no |n=Portal:Christianity|m=no|mw=no|voy=Christianity}}
* {{DMOZ|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality/Christianity/}}
* [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/115240/Christianity "Christianity"]. ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/index.shtml Religion & Ethics – Christianity] A number of introductory articles on Christianity from the [[BBC]]
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