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{{About|the Christian Greek Scriptures in the [[Christian biblical canons|Christian Biblical canon]]|the theological concept|New Covenant}}
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{{Books of the New Testament}}
{{Christianity|state=collapsed}}

The '''New Testament''' ({{lang-gr|Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη}}, [[Transliteration|trans.]] ''Hē Kainḕ Diathḗkē''; {{lang-la|Novum Testamentum}}) is the second part of the [[Christian biblical canons|Christian biblical canon]], the first part being the [[Old Testament]], based on the [[Hebrew Bible]]. The New Testament discusses the teachings and person of [[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus]], as well as events in [[Christianity in the 1st century|first-century Christianity]]. Christians regard both the Old and New Testaments together as [[Religious text|sacred scripture]]. The New Testament (in whole or in part) has frequently accompanied the [[Early centers of Christianity|spread of Christianity around the world]]. It reflects and serves as a source for [[Christian theology]] and [[Christian ethics|morality]]. Extended readings and phrases directly from the New Testament are incorporated (along with readings from the Old Testament) into the various [[Christian liturgy|Christian liturgies]]. The New Testament has influenced religious, [[Philosophical movement|philosophical]], and [[Political movement|political]] [[Social movement|movements]] in [[Christendom]] and left an indelible mark on literature, art, and music.

The New Testament is a collection of Christian works written in the [[Koine Greek|common (Koine) Greek]] language of the first century, at different times by various writers, and the modern consensus is that it provides important evidence regarding [[Christianity and Judaism|Judaism]] in the first century AD.<ref>[[John Barton (theologian)|Barton, John]] (3 February 2012). "Before the parting of the ways". ''[[Times Literary Supplement]]''. p. 12.</ref> In almost all Christian traditions today, the New Testament consists of 27 books.
The [[canon]] or list of the books of the New Testament is not found anywhere in any book of the Bible. It was the united Catholic Church which defined the 27-book canon. The first time we find the complete list of the 27 books of the NT is in Athanasius, eastern Catholic bishop of the IV Century. The first time that church councils gave us this same list was in the councils of Hippo (393) and Carthage (397) in north Africa and the pope Innocent I ratified the same canon in 405, but it is probable that a Council in Rome in 382 under pope Damasus gave the same list first. These councils also provided the canon of the Old Testament, which included the so-called apocryphal books <ref> Introduction to the New Testament. Werner Georg Kummel, pages 500f. Abingdon Press. Nashville. 1993. </ref>.

The original texts were written in the first century of the [[Christian Era]], in Greek, which was the [[Lingua franca|common language]] of the [[Eastern Mediterranean]] from the [[Wars of Alexander the Great|conquests of Alexander the Great]] (335–323 BC) until the [[Muslim conquests]] in the 7th century AD. All the works that eventually became incorporated into the New Testament are believed to have been written no later than around 120 AD.<ref name = seeStandard>See the books listed under "Further reading", below, by Goodspeed, Kümmel, Duling and Perrin, Koester, Conzelmann and Lindemann, Brown, and Ehrman. E.g. {{cite book |author=Bart D. Ehrman |title=The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xpoNAQAAMAAJ |year=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-508481-8 |page=8 |quote=The New Testament contains twenty-seven books, written in Greek, by fifteen or sixteen different authors, who were addressing other Christian individuals or communities between the years 50 and 120 C.E. (see box 1.4). As we will see, it is difficult to know whether any of these books was written by Jesus' own disciples.}}</ref><ref>[[John Robinson (bishop of Woolwich)#Redating the New Testament (1976)|John A. T. Robinson]] of [[Trinity College, Cambridge]].</ref> {{Better source|reason= this source is not specific. If referencing a book, more information should be given.|date=August 2016}} [[John Robinson (bishop of Woolwich)#Redating the New Testament (1976)|John A. T. Robinson]], [[Daniel B. Wallace|Dan Wallace]], and [[William F. Albright]] dated all the books of the New Testament before 70 AD.<ref>{{cite book |first = John Arthur Thomas |last= Robinson |title= Redating the New Testament | year = 2000 | origyear=1976 |location= Eugene, Oregon, USA |publisher=Wipf & Stock |isbn=9781579105273 |page=352 }}</ref> Others give a final date of 80 AD,<ref>{{cite book | author = Geisler, Norman | date = 1998 | title = Baker Encyclopedia of Christian Apologetics |series=Baker Reference Library | pages = 14f, 46ff, 37–41 | location = Ada, Michigan, USA | publisher = Baker | isbn = 0801021510 | chapter =[[William F. Albright|Albright, William F.]] ''and'' Archaeology, New Testament ''and passim'' | quote = [Quoting Albright:] We can already say emphatically that there is no longer any basis for dating any book of the New Testament after about 80 AD.}} See excerpt at: {{cite web |url=http://www.bethinking.org/bible/the-dating-of-the-new-testament |title=The Dating of the New Testament |publisher=BeThinking |accessdate=17 February 2016}}</ref> or at 96 AD.<ref name=Mounce/>

Collections of related texts such as [[Pauline epistles|letters]] of the [[Paul the Apostle|Apostle Paul]] (a major collection of which must have been made already by the early 2nd century)<ref>See, e.g., Clabeaux, J. J. (1989). ''A Lost Edition of the Letters of Paul: A Reassessment of the Text of the Pauline Corpus Attested by [[Marcion]]''. Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph Series, 21. Washington, D.C.: Catholic Biblical Association.{{page needed|date=February 2016}}</ref> and the [[Canonical Gospels]] of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John (asserted by [[Irenaeus|Irenaeus of Lyon]] in the late-2nd century as ''the'' Four Gospels) gradually were joined to other collections and single works in different combinations to [[Development of the Christian biblical canon|form various Christian canons of Scripture]]. Over time, some [[Antilegomena|disputed books]], such as the [[Book of Revelation]] and the [[Catholic epistles|Minor Catholic (General) Epistles]] were introduced into [[Biblical canon|canons]] in which they were originally absent. Other works earlier held to be Scripture, such as [[1 Clement]], the [[Shepherd of Hermas]], and the [[Diatessaron]], were excluded from the New Testament. The Old Testament canon is not completely uniform among all major Christian groups including [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]], [[Protestantism|Protestants]], the [[Greek Orthodox Church]], the [[Slavic Orthodox|Slavic Orthodox Churches]], and the [[Armenian Orthodox Church]]. However, the [[Development of the New Testament canon|twenty-seven-book canon]] of the New Testament, at least since [[Late Antiquity]], has been almost universally recognized within [[Christianity]] (see [[Development of the New Testament canon]]).

The New Testament consists of:
*Four narratives of the life, teaching, death and resurrection of Jesus called "gospel" or the good news.
*A narrative of the [[Apostles|Apostle]] ministries in the [[Early Christianity|early church]], called the "Acts of the Apostles", and probably written by the same writer as the [[Gospel of Luke]], which it continues;
*Twenty-one letters, often called "[[epistles]]" from Greek "epistole", written by various authors, and consisting of Christian doctrine, counsel, instruction, and conflict resolution; and
*An [[Apocalypse]], the [[Book of Revelation]], which is a [[Prophecy|book of prophecy]], containing some instructions to [[Seven churches of Asia|seven local congregations of Asia Minor]], but mostly containing prophetical [[semiotics|symbology]], about the [[end time]]s.

==Etymology==
{{Multiple issues|section=yes|
{{original research | section|date=February 2016}}
{{essay | section|date=February 2016}}
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The term "new testament" ([[Koine Greek]]: Ἡ Καινὴ Διαθήκη, ''Hē Kainḕ Diathḗkē''),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hs-augsburg.de/~harsch/graeca/Chronologia/S_post01/NT/nte_intr.html|title=bibliotheca Augustana|author=|date=|work=hs-augsburg.de|accessdate=17 February 2016}}{{primary source inline|date=February 2016}}{{Original research inline|date=February 2016}}</ref>{{better source|date=February 2016}} or "[[new covenant]]" (Hebrew בְּרִית חֲדָשָׁה ''bərîṯ ḥăḏāšâ''){{citation needed|date=February 2016}} first occurs in {{Bibleref2|Jeremiah|31:31}} (Greek [[Septuagint]] καινὴ διαθήκη ''kainḕ diathḗkē'', cited in {{Bibleref2|Hebrews|8:8}}).{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} The same Greek phrase for "new covenant" is found elsewhere in the New Testament ({{Bibleref2|Luke|22:20}}, {{Bibleref2|1cor|11:25||1 Corinthians 11:25}}, {{Bibleref2|2cor|3:6||2 Corinthians 3:6}}, {{Bibleref2|Hebrews|8:8}}, and {{Bibleref2|Hebrews|9:15}}; cf. {{Bibleref2|2Cor|3:14||2 Corinthians 3:14}}).{{Original research inline|date=February 2016}}{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} In early [[Bible translations into Latin]], the phrase was rendered ''foedus'', "federation", in {{Bibleref2|Jeremiah|31:31}},{{according to whom|date=February 2016}}{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} and was rendered ''testamentum'' in {{Bibleref2|Hebrews|8:8}} and other instances from which comes the English term "New Testament."{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}

Modern English, like Latin, distinguishes [[wikt:testament|testament]] and [[wikt:covenant|covenant]] as alternative translations, and consequently the treatment of the term διαθήκη ''diathḗkē'' varies in [[Bible translations into English]].{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} [[John Wycliffe]]'s 1395 version is a translation of the [[Latin Vulgate]] and so follows different terms in Jeremiah and Hebrews:{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}
<blockquote>
:Lo! days shall come, saith the Lord, and I shall make a new covenant (from Latin ''foedus'') with the house of Israel, and with the house of Judah.{{Bibleref2c|Jeremiah|31:31}}

:For he reproving him saith, Lo! days come, saith the Lord, when I shall establish a new testament (from Latin ''testamentum'') on the house of Israel, and on the house of Judah.{{Bibleref2c|Hebrews|8:8}}</blockquote>

Use of the term ''New Testament'' to describe a collection of first and second-century Christian Greek Scriptures can be traced back to [[Tertullian]] (in ''Against [[Praxeas]]'' 15).<ref>{{cite book | author = Allen, Clifton J. | date = 1969 | title = The Broadman Bible Commentary: Volume 8, General Articles, Matthew-Mark | location = London, England, and Nashville, Tennessee, USA | publisher = Broadman Press | asin = B000BUN8GM | quote = Tertullian was apparently the first to use the term New Testament in the sense of a collection of books (Against Praxeas XV). }}{{page needed|date=February 2016}}</ref> In ''Against [[Marcion]]'', written ''circa'' 208 AD, he writes of
<blockquote>
the Divine Word, who is doubly edged with the two testaments of the [[Torah|law]] and the [[gospel]].<ref>Tertullian. "Chapter XIV". [http://earlychristianwritings.com/text/tertullian123.html ''Against Marcion, Book III''].</ref>

</blockquote>
And Tertullian continues later in the book, writing:
<blockquote>
it is certain that the whole aim at which he [Marcion] has strenuously laboured, even in the drawing up of his [[Antitheses]], centres in this, that he may establish a diversity between the Old and the New Testaments, so that his own [[Christ]] may be separate from the [[Creator God|Creator]], as belonging to this rival god, and as alien from the law and the [[Neviim|prophets]].<ref>Tertullian. "Chapter VI". [http://earlychristianwritings.com/text/tertullian124.html ''Against Marcion, Book IV''].</ref><ref group=note>See also Tertullian, [http://earlychristianwritings.com/text/tertullian124.html ''Against Marcion, Book IV''], chapters I, II, XIV. However, his meaning in chapter XX is less clear, and in chapters IX and XL he uses the term to mean "new covenant".</ref>
</blockquote>

By the [[Christianity in the 4th century|4th century]], the existence—even if not the exact contents—of both an Old and New Testament had been established. [[Lactantius]], a 3rd–4th century Christian author wrote in his early-4th-century Latin ''Institutiones Divinae'' (''Divine Institutes''):
<blockquote>
But all scripture is divided into two Testaments. That which preceded the advent and passion of Christ—that is, the [[Torah|law]] and the [[Neviim|prophets]]—is called the Old; but those things which were written after His resurrection are named the New Testament. The Jews make use of the Old, we of the New: but yet they are not discordant, for the New is the fulfilling of the Old, and in both there is the same testator, even Christ, who, having suffered death for us, made us heirs of His everlasting kingdom, the people of the Jews being deprived and disinherited. As the prophet Jeremiah testifies when he speaks such things: "Behold, the days come, saith the Lord, that I will make a new testament to the house of Israel and the house of Judah, not according to the testament which I made to their fathers, in the day that I took them by the hand to bring them out of the land of Egypt; for they continued not in my testament, and I disregarded them, saith the Lord."{{Bibleref2c|Jer|31:31–32}} ... For that which He said above, that He would make a new testament to the house of Judah, shows that the old testament which was given by Moses was not perfect; but that which was to be given by Christ would be complete.<ref>Lactantius. "Chapter XX". [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf07.iii.ii.iv.xx.html "The Divine Institutes, Book IV"].</ref>

</blockquote>

==Books==
{{refimprove section|date=February 2016}}
{{See also|Christian biblical canons|Development of the New Testament canon|New Testament apocrypha|Template:Books of the New Testament}}
The [[canon of the New Testament]] is the collection of books that most [[Christians]] regard as [[Biblical inspiration|divinely inspired]] and constituting the New Testament of the [[Christian biblical canon|Christian Biblical Canon]].<ref name="mcdowell2006_canon">McDowell, Josh. Evidence for Christianity. Tennessee: Thomas Nelson, Inc. 2006. pp. 42–46.</ref>

In the period extending roughly from 50 to 150 AD, a number of documents began to circulate among the churches, including epistles, gospel accounts, memoirs, prophecies, homilies, and collections of teachings.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} While some of these documents were [[Apostolic Age|apostolic in origin]], others drew upon the tradition the apostles and ministers of the word had utilized in their individual missions, and still others represented a summation of the teaching entrusted to a particular church center.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} Several of these writings sought to extend, interpret, and apply apostolic teaching to meet the needs of Christians in a given locality.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}

In general, among [[Christian denominations]] the New Testament canon came to be agreed-upon as a list of 27 books, although the order of the books can vary from one version of the printed scriptures to the next.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} The book order is the same in the Greek Orthodox,{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} Roman Catholic,{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} and Protestant traditions.<ref name="Luther">Bouman, Herbert J. A. (November 1955). [http://media.ctsfw.edu/Item/ViewDetails/98 "The Doctrine of Justification in the Lutheran Confessions"] [incl. Bouman's transl. of Martin Luther's "Commentary on Galatians" (1538)]. ''Concordia Theological Monthly'' '''26''' (11): 801–19.</ref>{{better source|date=February 2016}} The [[Slavonic Orthodox|Slavonic]], [[Armenian Orthodox Church|Armenian]] and [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church|Ethiopian]] traditions have different New Testament book orders.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}

===The Gospels===
{{Main article|Canonical gospels}}
Each of the four [[gospels]] in the New Testament narrates the life, death, and resurrection of [[Jesus]] of [[Nazareth]]. The word "gospel" derives from the [[Old English language|Old English]] ''gōd-spell''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Gospel |title=Gospel |publisher=Merriam-Webster Dictionary |accessdate=10 May 2016}}</ref> (rarely ''godspel''), meaning "good news" or "glad tidings". The gospel was considered the "good news" of the coming [[Messiah#Christianity|Kingdom of Messiah]], and the redemption through the life and death of Jesus, the central Christian message.<ref name="ODCC self Gospel">Cross, F. L., ed (2005). "Gospel". The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> Gospel is a [[calque]] (word-for-word translation) of the [[Koine Greek|Greek]] word {{lang|grc|εὐαγγέλιον}}, ''euangelion'' (''eu-'' "good", ''-angelion'' "message").

Since the 2nd century, the four narrative accounts of the life and work of Jesus Christ have been referred to as "The Gospel of ..." or "The Gospel according to ..." followed by the name of the supposed author. Whatever these admittedly early ascriptions may imply about the sources behind or the perception of these gospels, they are anonymous compositions.<ref name = seeStandard/>
* The [[Gospel of Matthew]], ascribed to the [[Matthew the Evangelist|Apostle Matthew]]. This gospel begins with a [[genealogy of Jesus]] and a story of his birth that includes a visit from [[Biblical Magi|magi]] and a [[flight into Egypt]], and it ends with the [[Great Commission|commissioning of the disciples]] by the resurrected Jesus.
* The [[Gospel of Mark]], ascribed to [[Mark the Evangelist]]. This gospel begins with the preaching of [[John the Baptist]] and the [[baptism of Jesus]]. Two different secondary endings were affixed to this gospel in the 2nd century.
* The [[Gospel of Luke]], ascribed to [[Luke the Evangelist]], who was not one of [[Twelve Disciples#The Twelve Apostles|the Twelve Apostles]], but was mentioned as a companion of the [[Paul of Tarsus|Apostle Paul]] and as a physician.<ref>Fitzmyer, Joseph A. (1985). ''The Gospel according to Luke, Vol. 1''. Anchor Bible Commentary series. New York: Doubleday. pp. 35–53.</ref> This gospel begins with parallel stories of the birth and childhood of [[John the Baptist]] and [[Jesus]] and ends with appearances of the resurrected Jesus and his ascension into heaven.
* The [[Gospel of John]], ascribed to [[John the Apostle]]. This gospel begins with a philosophical prologue and ends with appearances of the resurrected Jesus. It is about Jesus's miracles.

The first three gospels listed above are classified as the [[Synoptic Gospels]]. They contain similar accounts of the events in Jesus' life and his teaching, due to their literary interdependence. The Gospel of John is structured differently and includes stories of several miracles of Jesus and sayings not found in the other three.

These four gospels that were eventually included in the New Testament were only a few among many other early Christian gospels. The existence of such texts is even mentioned at the beginning of the Gospel of Luke.{{Bibleref2c|Luke|1:1–4}} Other early Christian gospels such as the so-called "[[Jewish-Christian Gospels]]" or the [[Gospel of Thomas]], also offer both a window into the context of [[early Christianity]] and may provide some assistance in the reconstruction of the [[historical Jesus]].

===Acts of the Apostles===
The [[Acts of the Apostles]] is a narrative of the apostles' ministry and activity after [[Christ's death]] and resurrection, from which point it resumes and functions as a sequel to the [[Gospel of Luke]]. Examining style, phraseology, and other evidence, modern scholarship generally concludes that Acts and the Gospel of Luke share the same author, referred to as [[Luke–Acts]]. Luke-Acts does not name its author.{{sfn|Burkett|2002|p=196}} Church tradition identified him as [[Luke the Evangelist]], the companion of Paul, but the majority of scholars reject this due to the many contradictions between Acts and the authentic Pauline letters.{{sfn|Ehrman|2005|p=235}} The most probable date of composition is around 80–100 AD, and there is evidence that it was still being substantially revised well into the 2nd century.{{sfn|Perkins|2009|pp=250–53}}

===Epistles===
The epistles of the New Testament are considered by Christians to be divinely inspired and holy letters, written by the apostles and disciples of Christ, to either local congregations with specific needs, or to New Covenant Christians in general, scattered about; or "Catholic Epistles."

====Pauline Letters to Churches====
{{Main article|Pauline epistles}}
The Pauline epistles are the thirteen New Testament books that present [[Paul the Apostle]] as their author.{{refn|group=note|[[Joseph Barber Lightfoot]] in his ''Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians'' writes: "At this point [{{Bibleref2|Gal|6:11}}] the apostle takes the pen from his [[amanuensis]], and the concluding paragraph is written with his own hand. From the time when letters began to be forged in his name ({{bibleref2|2 Thess|2:2||2 Thess. 3:17}}; {{bibleref2-nb|2 Thess|3:17||2 Thess. 3:17}}) it seems to have been his practice to close with a few words in his own handwriting, as a precaution against such forgeries.... In the present case he writes a whole paragraph, summing up the main lessons of the epistle in terse, eager, disjointed sentences. He writes it, too, in large, bold characters (Gr. ''pelikois grammasin''), that his handwriting may reflect the energy and determination of his soul."<ref>{{cite book |last=Lightfoot |first=Joseph Barber |year=1866 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N8ECAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA217 |title=St Paul's Epistle to the Galatians |edition=2nd |publisher=MacMillan & Co |page=217}}</ref>}} Six of the letters are disputed. Four are thought by most modern scholars to be [[Pseudepigraphy|pseudepigraphic]], i.e., not actually written by Paul even if attributed to him within the letters themselves. Opinion is more divided on the other two disputed letters (2 Thessalonians and Colossians).<ref>Bassler, Jouette M. (2010). "Paul and his Letters". In Aune, David E. ''The Blackwell Companion to the New Testament''. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 388. {{ISBN|9781444318944}}.</ref> These letters were written to Christian communities in specific cities or geographical regions, often to address issues faced by that particular community. Prominent themes include the relationship both to broader "[[Gentile|pagan]]" society, to Judaism, and to other Christians.<ref>Roetzel, Calvin J. (2009). ''The Letters of Paul: Conversations in Context'' (5th ed.). Louisville, Kentucky: Westminster John Knox. {{ISBN|9780664233921}}.{{page needed|date=February 2016}}</ref>
*[[Epistle to the Romans]]
*[[First Epistle to the Corinthians]]
*[[Second Epistle to the Corinthians]]
*[[Epistle to the Galatians]]
*[[Epistle to the Ephesians]]*
*[[Epistle to the Philippians]]
*[[Epistle to the Colossians]]*
*[[First Epistle to the Thessalonians]]
*[[Second Epistle to the Thessalonians]]*
[Disputed letters are marked with an asterisk (*).]

====Pauline Letters to Persons====
The last four Pauline letters in the New Testament are addressed to individual persons. They include the following:
* [[First Epistle to Timothy]]*
* [[Second Epistle to Timothy]]*
* [[Epistle to Titus]]*
* [[Epistle to Philemon]]
[Disputed letters are marked with an asterisk (*).]

All of the above except for Philemon are known as the [[Pastoral epistles]]. They are addressed to individuals charged with pastoral oversight of churches and discuss issues of Christian living, doctrine and leadership. They often address different concerns to those of the preceding epistles. These letters are believed by many to be pseudepigraphic. Some scholars (e.g., Bill Mounce, Ben Witherington) will argue that the letters are genuinely Pauline, or at least written under Paul's supervision.

====Hebrews====
The [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] addresses a Jewish audience who had come to believe that Jesus was the [[Messiah#Judaism|anointed one]] (Hebrew: מָשִׁיחַ—transliterated in English as "Moshiach", or "Messiah"; Greek: Χριστός—transliterated in English as "Christos", for "[[Christ]]") who was predicted in the writings of the Hebrew Bible. The author discusses the "better-ness" of the new covenant and the ministry of Jesus, over the Mosaic covenant {{Bibleref2c|Heb.|1:1–10:18}} and urges the readers in the practical implications of this conviction through the end of the epistle.{{Bibleref2c|Heb.|10:19–13:25}}

The book has been widely accepted by the Christian church as inspired by God and thus authoritative, despite the acknowledgment of uncertainties about who its human author was. Regarding authorship, although the Epistle to the Hebrews does not internally claim to have been written by the [[Paul of Tarsus|Apostle Paul]], some similarities in wordings to some of the Pauline Epistles have been noted and inferred. In antiquity, some began to ascribe it to Paul in an attempt to provide the anonymous work an explicit apostolic pedigree.<ref>[[Harold W. Attridge|Attridge, Harold W.]] (1989). ''Hebrews''. Hermeneia. Philadelphia: Fortress. pp. 1–6.</ref>

In the 4th century, [[Jerome]] and [[Augustine of Hippo]] supported [[Authorship of the Pauline epistles|Paul's authorship]]. The Church largely agreed to include Hebrews as the fourteenth letter of Paul, and affirmed this authorship until the [[Protestant Reformation|Reformation]]. The letter to the Hebrews had difficulty in being accepted as part of the Christian canon because of its anonymity.<ref>[[William L. Lane|Lane, William L.]] (1991). ''Hebrews 1–8''. Word Biblical Commentary series, Vol. 47A. Dallas, Texas: Word Books. p. cliv.</ref> As early as the 3rd century, [[Origen]] wrote of the letter, "Men of old have handed it down as Paul's, but who wrote the Epistle God only knows."<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250106.htm |author=Eusebius |title=Church History, Book VI |chapter=Chapter 25}}</ref>

Contemporary scholars often reject Pauline authorship for the epistle to the Hebrews,<ref name="Ehrman 2004:411">Ehrman, Bart D. (1997). ''The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings''. Oxford University Press. p. 323. "Scholars in the ancient world went about detecting forgeries in much the same way that modern scholars do. They looked to see whether the ideas and writing style of a piece conformed with those used by the author in other writings, and they examined the text for any blatant anachronisms, that is, statements about things that could not have existed at the time the alleged author was writing (like the letter reputedly from an early seventeenth-century American colonist that mentions "the United States")- Arguments of this kind were used by some Christian scholars of the third century to show that Hebrews was not written by Paul or the Book of Revelation by John the son of Zebedee. Modern scholars, as we will see, concur with these judgments. To be sure, neither of these books can be considered a forgery. Hebrews does not claim to be written by Paul (it is anonymous), and the John who wrote Revelation does not claim to be the son of Zebedee (it is therefore homonymous). Are there other books in the New Testament, though, that can be considered forgeries?"</ref> based on its distinctive style and theology, which are considered to set it apart from Paul's writings.<ref name=Powell>{{cite book |last=Powell |first=Mark A. |year=2009 |title=Introducing the New Testament: A Historical, Literary, and Theological Survey |location=Grand Rapids, Michigan|publisher=Baker Academic |pages=431–32 |isbn=9780801028687 |ref=harv}}</ref>

====Catholic epistles====
The [[Catholic epistles]] (or "general epistles") consist of both letters and treatises in the form of letters written to the church at large. The term "[[catholic]]" ([[Koine Greek|Greek]]: καθολική, ''katholikē''), used to describe these letters in the oldest manuscripts containing them, here simply means "general" or "universal". The authorship of a number of these is disputed.
* [[Epistle of James]], written by an author named "James", often identified with [[James the Just|James, the brother of Jesus]].
* [[First Epistle of Peter]], ascribed to the [[Saint Peter|Apostle Peter]].
* [[Second Epistle of Peter]], ascribed to the Apostle Peter, though widely considered not to have been written by him.<ref>Fornberg, Tord (1977). ''An Early Church in a Pluralistic Society: A Study of 2 Peter''. Coniectanea Biblica, New Testament Series 9. Lund: Gleerup.{{page needed|date=February 2016}}</ref>
* [[First Epistle of John]], ascribed to [[John the Apostle]].
* [[Second Epistle of John]], ascribed to John the Apostle.
* [[Third Epistle of John]], ascribed to John the Apostle.
* [[Epistle of Jude]], written under the name of [[Jude, brother of Jesus|Jude, the brother of Jesus and James]].

===Book of Revelation===
{{Further information|Authorship of the Johannine works}}
The final book of the New Testament is the [[Book of Revelation]], also known as the Apocalypse of John. In the New Testament canon, it is considered [[Bible prophecy|prophetical]] or [[apocalyptic literature]]. Its authorship has been attributed either to John the Apostle (in which case it is often thought that John the Apostle is [[John the Evangelist]], i.e. author of the [[Gospel of John]]) or to another John designated "[[John of Patmos]]" after the island where the text says the revelation was received (1:9). Some ascribe the writership date as circa 81–96 AD, and others at around 68 AD.<ref name=Mounce>[[Robert Mounce|Mounce, Robert]] (1998). [https://books.google.com/books?id=06VR1JzzLNsC&pg=PA15 ''The Book of Revelation''] (revised ed.). The New International Commentary on the New Testament Series. Cambridge, UK: Eerdmans. pp. 15–16. {{ISBN|0802825370}}.</ref> The work opens with letters to [[Seven churches of Asia|seven churches]] and thereafter takes the form of an [[apocalypse]], a literary genre popular in ancient Judaism and Christianity.<ref>For a detailed study of the Apocalypse of John, see Aune, David E. (1998). ''Revelation'', 3 volumes. Word Biblical Commentary series. Nashville, Tennessee: Thomas Nelson.</ref>

===New Testament canons===
{{refimprove section |date=February 2016}}
{{See also|Canon of the New Testament}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! style="width:124px;"| Books
! style="width:123px; text-align:center;"| Protestant tradition
! style="width:123px;"| Roman Catholic tradition
! style="width:123px;"| Eastern Orthodox tradition
! style="width:123px;"| Armenian Apostolic tradition {{refn|group=N|name=Armenian|The growth and development of the Armenian Biblical canon is complex; extra-canonical New Testament books appear in historical canon lists and recensions that are either distinct to this tradition, or where they do exist elsewhere, never achieved the same status.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} Some of the books are not listed in this table; these include the Prayer of [[Euthalius]], the Repose of [[St. John the Evangelist]], the [[Doctrine of Addai]], a reading from the [[Gospel of James]], [[Apostolic Canons|the Second Apostolic Canons]], the Words of [[Joseph Barsabbas|Justus]], [[Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite|Dionysius Aeropagite]], the [[Preaching of Peter]], and a Poem by [[Ghazar Parpetsi|Ghazar]].{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} (Various sources{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} also mention undefined Armenian canonical additions to the Gospels of Mark and John, however, these may refer to the general additions—Mark 16:9–20 and John 7:53–8:11—discussed elsewhere in these notes.) A possible exception here to canonical exclusivity is the Second Apostolic Canons, which share a common source—the [[Apostolic Constitutions]]—with certain parts of the Orthodox Tewahedo New Testament broader canon.{{citation needed|date=September 2017}} The ''Acts of Thaddeus'' was included in the biblical canon of [[Gregory of Tatev]].{{sfn|Nersessian|2001|p=29}} There is some uncertainty about whether Armenian canon lists include the Doctrine of Addai or the related [[Acts of Thaddeus]].{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} Moreover, the correspondence between King [[Agbar]] and Jesus Christ, which is found in various forms—including within both the Doctrine of Addai and the Acts of Thaddeus—sometimes appears separately (see [http://www.looys.net/BIBCANON.DOC list]{{full citation needed|date=February 2016}}). The Prayer of Euthalius and the Repose of St. John the Evangelist appear in the appendix of the 1805 Armenian Zohrab Bible;{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} however, some of the aforementioned books, though they are found within canon lists, have nonetheless never been discovered to be part of any Armenian Biblical manuscript.{{sfn|Nersessian|2001|p=29}}}}
! style="width:123px;"| Coptic Orthodox tradition
! style="width:123px;"| [[Orthodox Tewahedo]] traditions
! style="width:123px;"| [[Syriac Christianity|Syriac Christian]] traditions
|-
| colspan="8" style="text-align:center;"| ''[[Canonical Gospels]]''<ref group=N name=infancy>Though widely regarded as non-canonical,{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} the Gospel of James obtained early liturgical acceptance among some Eastern churches and remains a major source for many of Christendom's traditions related to [[Mary, the mother of Jesus]].{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref>
|-
| [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}<ref group=N name=Tatian>The [[Diatessaron]], [[Tatian]]'s [[gospel harmony]], became a standard text in some Syriac-speaking churches down to the 5th century, when it gave-way to the four separate gospels found in the Peshitta.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref>
|-
| [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]]<ref group=N name=Addition>Parts of these four books are not found in the most reliable ancient sources; in some cases, are thought to be later additions, and have therefore not appeared historically in every Biblical tradition.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} They are as follows: [[Mark 16|Mark 16:9–20]], [[Jesus and the woman taken in adultery|John 7:53–8:11]], the [[Comma Johanneum]], and portions of the [[Acts of the Apostles#Manuscripts|Western version of Acts]]. To varying degrees, arguments for the authenticity of these passages—especially for the one from the Gospel of John—have occasionally been made.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref> || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}<ref group=N name=Tatian/>
|-
| [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}<ref group=N name=Tatian/>
|-
| [[Gospel of John|John]]<ref group=N name=Addition/><ref group=N name=Goth>[[Skeireins]], a commentary on the Gospel of John in the [[Gothic language]], was included in the [[Wulfila Bible]].{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} It exists today only in fragments.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref>|| {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}<ref group=N name=Tatian/>
|-
| colspan="8" style="text-align:center;"| ''[[Apostolic Age|Apostolic History]]''
|-
| [[Acts of the Apostles|Acts]]<ref group=N name=Addition/> || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Acts of Paul and Thecla]] <ref group=N name=AoP>The Acts of Paul and Thecla, the Epistle of the Corinthians to Paul, and the Third Epistle to the Corinthians are all portions of the greater [[Acts of Paul]] narrative, which is part of a stichometric catalogue of New Testament canon found in the [[Codex Claromontanus]], but has survived only in fragments.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} Some of the content within these individual sections may have developed separately.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref><ref>Burris, Catherine; Van Rompay, Lucas (2002). [http://www.bethmardutho.org/index.php/hugoye/volume-index/143.html "Thecla in Syriac Christianity: Preliminary Observations"]. ''Hugoye: Journal of Syriac Studies'' '''5''' (2): 225–36.</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Carter |first=Nancy A. |year=2000 |title=The Acts of Thecla: A Pauline Tradition Linked to Women |publisher=Conflict and Community in the Corinthian Church |url=http://gbgm-umc.org/umw/corinthians/theclabackground.stm |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141128114841/http://gbgm-umc.org/umw/corinthians/theclabackground.stm |archivedate=28 November 2014}}</ref> || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || style="background:#FFA6C9; text-align:center;"| No (early tradition) || {{No}} || {{No}} || style="background:#FFA6C9; text-align:center;"| No (early tradition)
|-
| colspan="8" style="text-align:center;"|''[[Catholic Epistles]]''
|-
| [[Epistle of James|James]] || style="background:#1CAC78; text-align:center;"| Yes<ref group=N name=Luther/> || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[First Epistle of Peter|1 Peter]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Second Epistle of Peter|2 Peter]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || style="background:#1CAC78; text-align:center;"| Yes<ref group=N name=Syriac>The Peshitta excludes 2 John, 3 John, 2 Peter, Jude, and Revelation, but certain Bibles of the modern Syriac traditions include later translations of those books.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} Still today, the official [[lectionary]] followed by the Syriac Orthodox Church and the Assyrian Church of the East presents lessons from only the twenty-two books of Peshitta, the version to which appeal is made for the settlement of doctrinal questions.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref>
|-
| [[First Epistle of John|1 John]]<ref group=N name=Addition/> || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Second Epistle of John|2 John]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || style="background:#1CAC78; text-align:center;"| Yes<ref group=N name=Syriac/>
|-
| [[Third Epistle of John|3 John]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || style="background:#1CAC78; text-align:center;"| Yes<ref group=N name=Syriac/>
|-
| [[Epistle of Jude|Jude]] || style="background:#1CAC78; text-align:center;"| Yes<ref group=N name=Luther/> || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || style="background:#1CAC78; text-align:center;"| Yes<ref group=N name=Syriac/>
|-
| colspan="8" style="text-align:center;"|''[[Pauline Epistles]]''
|-
| [[Epistle to the Romans|Romans]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Corinthians]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Second Epistle to the Corinthians|2 Corinthians]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Epistle of the Corinthians to Paul|Corinthians to Paul]] and [[Third Epistle to the Corinthians|3 Corinthians]] <ref group=N name=AoP/><ref group=N name=Corinthians>The Third Epistle to the Corinthians often appears with and is framed as a response to the [[Epistle of the Corinthians to Paul]].{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref> || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || style="background:#fc9; text-align:center;"| No − inc. in some mss. || {{No}} || {{No}} || style="background:#FFA6C9; text-align:center;"| No (early tradition)
|-
| [[Epistle to the Galatians|Galatians]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Epistle to the Ephesians|Ephesians]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Epistle to the Philippians|Philippians]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Epistle to the Colossians|Colossians]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Epistle to the Laodiceans|Laodiceans]] || style="background:#FFA6C9; text-align:center;"| No − inc. in some eds. <ref group=N name=Laodiceans>The Epistle to the Laodiceans is present in some western non-Roman Catholic translations and traditions.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} Especially of note is [[John Wycliffe]]'s inclusion of the epistle in his English translation,{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} and the [[Quakers]]' use of it to the point where they produced a translation and made pleas for its canonicity, see Poole's ''Annotations'', on Col. 4:16. The epistle is nonetheless widely rejected by the vast majority of Protestants.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last=Poole |first=Matthew |year=1852 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uN0XAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA729 |title=Annotations Upon the Holy Bible, Vol. III |publisher=Robert Carter and Brothers |page=729}}</ref> || style="background:#fc9; text-align:center;"| No − inc. in some mss. || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}}
|-
| [[First Epistle to the Thessalonians|1 Thessalonians]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Second Epistle to the Thessalonians|2 Thessalonians]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Epistle to the Hebrews|Hebrews]] || style="background:#1CAC78; text-align:center;"| Yes<ref group=N name=Luther>These four works were questioned or "[[Antilegomena|spoken against]]" by [[Martin Luther]], and he changed the order of [[Luther Bible|his New Testament]] to reflect this, but he did not leave them out, nor has any [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] body since.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} Traditional German Luther Bibles are still printed with the New Testament in this changed "Lutheran" order.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} The vast majority of Protestants embrace these four works as fully canonical.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref> || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[First Epistle to Timothy|1 Timothy]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Second Epistle to Timothy|2 Timothy]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Epistle to Titus|Titus]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| [[Epistle to Philemon|Philemon]] || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}}
|-
| colspan="8" style="text-align:center;"| ''[[Apocalypse]]''<ref group=N name=ApocPeter>The [[Apocalypse of Peter]], though not listed in this table, is mentioned in the [[Muratorian fragment]] and is part of a stichometric catalogue of New Testament canon found in the Codex Claromontanus.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} It was also held in high regard by [[Clement of Alexandria]].{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref>
|-
| [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]] || style="background:#1CAC78; text-align:center;"| Yes<ref group=N name=Luther/> || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || {{Yes}} || style="background:#1CAC78; text-align:center;"| Yes<ref group=N name=Syriac/>
|-
| colspan="8" style="text-align:center;"| ''[[Apostolic Fathers]]<ref group=N name=Fathers>Other known writings of the Apostolic Fathers not listed in this table are as follows: the seven [[Epistles of Ignatius]], the [[Epistle of Polycarp]], the [[Martyrdom of Polycarp]], the [[Epistle to Diognetus]], the fragment of [[Quadratus of Athens]], the fragments of [[Papias of Hierapolis]], the Reliques of the Elders Preserved in [[Irenaeus]], and the [[Apostles' Creed]].{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref> and [[Ancient Church Orders|Church Orders]]''<ref group=N name=Apostloic>Though they are not listed in this table, the [[Apostolic Constitutions]] were considered canonical by some including [[Alexius Aristenus]], [[John of Salisbury]], and to a lesser extent, [[Grigor Tatevatsi|Grigor Tat`evatsi]].{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} They are even classified as part of the New Testament canon within the body of the Constitutions itself; moreover, they are the source for a great deal of the content in the Orthodox Tewahedo broader canon.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref>
|-
| [[1 Clement]]<ref group=N name=ApFa>These five writings attributed to the Apostolic Fathers are not currently considered canonical in any Biblical tradition, though they are more highly regarded by some more than others.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} Nonetheless, their early authorship and inclusion in ancient Biblical codices, as well as their acceptance to varying degrees by various early authorities, requires them to be treated as foundational literature for Christianity as a whole.{{according to whom|date=February 2016}}{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref> || colspan="7" style="background:#FFA6C9; text-align:center;"| No (Codices [[Codex Alexandrinus|Alexandrinus]] and [[Codex Hierosolymitanus|Hierosolymitanus]])
|-
| [[2 Clement]]<ref group=N name=ApFa/> || colspan="7" style="background:#FFA6C9; text-align:center;"| No (Codices Alexandrinus and Hierosolymitanus)
|-
| [[Shepherd of Hermas]]<ref group=N name=ApFa/> || colspan="7" style="background:#FFA6C9; text-align:center;"| No ([[Codex Siniaticus]])
|-
| [[Epistle of Barnabas]]<ref group=N name=ApFa/> || colspan="7" style="background:#FFA6C9; text-align:center;"| No (Codices Hierosolymitanus and Siniaticus)
|-
| [[Didache]]<ref group=N name=ApFa/> || colspan="7" style="background:#FFA6C9; text-align:center;"| No (Codex Hierosolymitanus)
|-
| [[Ethiopian Biblical canon#Sinodos|Ser`atä Seyon]] (Sinodos) || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || style="background:#40E0D0; text-align:center;"| Yes (broader canon) || {{No}}
|-
| [[Ethiopian Biblical canon#Sinodos|Te'ezaz]] (Sinodos) || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || style="background:#40E0D0; text-align:center;"| Yes (broader canon) || {{No}}
|-
| [[Ethiopian Biblical canon#Sinodos|Gessew]] (Sinodos) || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || style="background:#40E0D0; text-align:center;"| Yes (broader canon) || {{No}}
|-
| [[Ethiopian Biblical canon#Sinodos|Abtelis]] (Sinodos) || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || style="background:#40E0D0; text-align:center;"| Yes (broader canon) || {{No}}
|-
| [[Ethiopian Biblical canon#The Book of the Covenant|Book of the Covenant 1]] (Mäshafä Kidan) || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || style="background:#40E0D0; text-align:center;"| Yes (broader canon) || {{No}}
|-
| [[Ethiopian Biblical canon#The Book of the Covenant|Book of the Covenant 2]] (Mäshafä Kidan) || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || style="background:#40E0D0; text-align:center;"| Yes (broader canon) || {{No}}
|-
| [[Ethiopian Biblical canon#Ethiopic Clement|Ethiopic Clement]] (Qälëmentos)<ref group=N name=Ethiopic>Ethiopic Clement and the Ethiopic Didascalia are distinct from and should not be confused with other ecclesiastical documents known in the west by similar names.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref> || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || style="background:#40E0D0; text-align:center;"| Yes (broader canon) || {{No}}
|-
| [[Ethiopian Biblical canon#Ethiopic Didascalia|Ethiopic Didescalia]] (Didesqelya)<ref group=N name=Ethiopic/> || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || {{No}} || style="background:#40E0D0; text-align:center;"| Yes (broader canon) || {{No}}
|}

;Table notes

<references group=N />

==Book order==
The order in which the books of the New Testament appear differs between some collections and ecclesiastical traditions. In the Latin West, prior to the [[Vulgate]] (an early 5th-century Latin version of the Bible), the four Gospels were arranged in the following order: Matthew, John, Luke, and Mark.{{refn|group=note|The Gospels are in this order in many Old Latin manuscripts, as well as in the Greek manuscripts [[Codex Bezae]] and [[Codex Washingtonianus]].}} The Syriac [[Peshitta]] places the major Catholic epistles (James, 1 Peter, and 1 John) immediately after Acts and before the Pauline epistles.

The order of an early edition of the letters of Paul is based on the size of the letters: longest to shortest, though keeping 1 and 2 Corinthians and 1 and 2 Thessalonians together. The Pastoral epistles were apparently not part of the ''Corpus Paulinum'' in which this order originated and were later inserted after 2 Thessalonians and before Philemon. Hebrews was variously incorporated into the ''Corpus Paulinum'' either after 2 Thessalonians, after Philemon (i.e. at the very end), or after Romans.

The New Testament of the 16th-century [[Luther Bible]] continues, to this day, to place Hebrews, James, Jude, and the Apocalypse last. This reflects the thoughts of the Reformer Martin Luther [[Luther's canon|on the canonicity of these books]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bible-researcher.com/links10.html|title=Web Directory: German Bible Versions|publisher=Bible Research|accessdate=17 February 2016}}</ref>{{refn|group=note|See also the article on the [[Antilegomena]].}}{{citation needed|date=February 2016}}

==Apocrypha==
{{Main article|New Testament apocrypha}}
The books that eventually found a permanent place in the New Testament were not the only works of Christian literature produced in the earliest Christian centuries. The long process of [[Development of the New Testament canon|canonization]] began early, sometimes with tacit reception of traditional texts, sometimes with explicit selection or rejection of particular texts as either acceptable or unacceptable for use in a given context (e.g., not all texts that were acceptable for private use were considered appropriate for use in the [[liturgy]]).

Over the course of history, those works of early Christian literature that survived but that did not become part of the New Testament have been variously grouped by theologians and scholars. Drawing upon, though redefining, an older term used in [[early Christianity]] and among Protestants when referring to those books found in the Christian [[Old Testament]] although not in the [[Tanakh|Jewish Bible]], modern scholars began to refer to these works of early Christian literature not included in the New Testament as "apocryphal", by which was meant non-canonical.

Collected editions of these works were then referred to as the "[[New Testament apocrypha]]". Typically excluded from such published collections are the following groups of works: [[Apostolic Fathers|The Apostolic Fathers]], the 2nd-century Christian apologists, [[Alexandrian school|the Alexandrians]], [[Tertullian]], [[Methodius of Olympus]], [[Novatian]], [[Cyprian]], martyrdoms, and [[Desert Fathers|the Desert Fathers]]. Almost all other Christian literature from the period, and sometimes including works composed well into [[Late Antiquity]], are relegated to the so-called New Testament apocrypha.

Although not considered to be inspired by God, these "apocryphal" works may be helpful in the study of the New Testament in that they were produced in the same ancient context and often using the same language as those books that would eventually form the New Testament. Some of these later works are dependent (either directly or indirectly) upon books that would later come to be in the New Testament or upon the ideas expressed in them. There is even an example of a [[pseudepigraph]]ical letter composed under the guise of a presumably lost letter of the Apostle Paul, the [[Epistle to the Laodiceans]].

==Authors==
{{Main article|Authorship of the Bible}}
The books of the New Testament were all or nearly all written by [[Jewish Christians]]—that is, Jewish disciples of Christ, who lived in the [[Roman Empire]], and under [[Judea (Roman province)|Roman occupation]].<ref>{{harvp|Powell|2009|p=16}}</ref> Luke, who wrote the Gospel of Luke and the Book of Acts, is frequently thought of as an exception; scholars are divided as to whether Luke was a Gentile or a [[Hellenistic Judaism|Hellenistic Jew]].<ref name="Strelan2013">Strelan, Rick (2013). ''Luke the Priest: The Authority of the Author of the Third Gospel''. Farnham, ENG: Routledege-[[Ashgate Publishing|Ashgate]]. pp. 102–105.</ref> A few scholars identify the author of the Gospel of Mark as probably a Gentile, and similarly for the Gospel of Matthew, though most assert Jewish-Christian authorship.<ref>For discussion of Mark, see Schröter, Jens (2010). "Gospel of Mark". In Aune, David. ''The Blackwell Companion to the New Testament''. New York, USA: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 281f.</ref><ref>For discussion of Mark, see Hare, Douglas R. A. (1996). ''Mark''. Louisville, Kentucky, USA: Westminster John Knox Press. pp. 3–5.</ref><ref>For discussion of Matthew, see Repschinski, Boris (1998). "Forschungbericht: Matthew and Judaism". ''The Controversy Stories in the Gospel of Matthew''. Göttingen, GER: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. pp. 13–61.</ref>{{verification needed|date=February 2016}}

===Gospels===
{{Main article|Synoptic Gospels}}
Authorship is an area of longstanding and current research and debate, with different works posing different problems for identification. While the various works have traditional ascriptions of authorship, these ascriptions are in some cases defended by scholars, and in other cases disputed or rejected.<ref>For overviews of the scholarship on authorship of the various New Testament works, see the relevant entries in Aune, David E., ed. (2010). ''The Blackwell Companion to the New Testament''. Hoboken, New Jersey, USA: Wiley-Blackwell.</ref> According to many (if not most) critical scholars, none of the authors of the Gospels were eyewitnesses or even explicitly claimed to be eyewitnesses.<ref name=lost>{{cite book|last=Ehrman|first=Bart D.|authorlink=Bart D. Ehrman|title=Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=URdACxKubDIC&pg=PA235|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-518249-1|page=235|quote=The four Gospels that eventually made it into the New Testament, for example, are all anonymous, written in the third person ''about'' Jesus and his companions. None of them contains a first-person narrative ('One day, when Jesus and I went into Capernaum...'), or claims to be written by an eyewitness or companion of an eyewitness. ... Most scholars today have abandoned these identifications, and recognize that the books were written by otherwise unknown but relatively well-educated Greek-speaking (and writing) Christians during the second half of the first century.}}</ref><ref name="Carolina2004">{{cite book|last=Ehrman|first=Bart D.|authorlink=Bart D. Ehrman|title=Truth and Fiction in The Da Vinci Code: A Historian Reveals What We Really Know about Jesus, Mary Magdalene, and Constantine|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vbLK6kn5T-EC&pg=PA110|date=1 November 2004|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA|isbn=978-0-19-534616-9|page=110|quote=In fact, contrary to what you might think, these Gospels don't even claim to be written by eyewitnesses.}}</ref><ref name=iuda>{{cite book|last=Ehrman|first=Bart D.|authorlink=Bart D. Ehrman|title=The Lost Gospel of Judas Iscariot: A New Look at Betrayer and Betrayed|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oBuJMhJlTYwC&pg=PA143|date=1 September 2006|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA|isbn=978-0-19-971104-8|page=143|quote=The Gospels of the New Testament are therefore our earliest accounts. These do not claim to be written by eyewitnesses to the life of Jesus, and historians have long recognized that they were produced by second- or third-generation Christians living in different countries than Jesus (and Judas) did, speaking a different language (Greek instead of Aramaic), experiencing different situations, and addressing different audiences.}}</ref> Bart Ehrman of the University of North Carolina has argued for a scholarly consensus that many New Testament books were not written by the individuals whose names are attached.<ref name=iuda/><ref>Ehrman, Bart (2009). ''Jesus, Interrupted''. New York, USA: Harper Collins. pp. 102–104.</ref>{{better source|date=February 2016}} He further argues that the Gospels were originally anonymous, and names were not ascribed to them until around 185 AD.<ref>Ehrman, Bart (1999). ''Jesus: Apocalyptic Prophet of the New Millennium''. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 43f.</ref><ref>Ehrman, Bart D. (2000) ''The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to Early Christian Writings.'' Oxford University Press. p. 49.</ref> Other scholars concur.<ref>Sanders, E. P. (1995). ''The Historical Figure of Jesus''. Penguin. pp. 63–64.</ref><ref name="Nickle2001">{{cite book|author=Nickle, Keith Fullerton |title=The Synoptic Gospels: An Introduction|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5SSytjasmAgC&pg=PA43|date=1 January 2001|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=978-0-664-22349-6|page=43 |via=Google Books}}</ref><ref name="Witherington2004">{{cite book|last=Witherington|first=Ben|authorlink=Ben Witherington III|title=The Gospel Code: Novel Claims About Jesus, Mary Magdalene and Da Vinci|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_1zuyIimlzcC&pg=PA44|date=2 June 2004|publisher=InterVarsity Press|isbn=978-0-8308-3267-5|page=44}}</ref> It is the perspective of some writers that none were written in Palestine.<ref>Theissen, Gerd (2004). ''The Gospels in Context''. London, ENG: Bloomsbury-Continuum. p. 290.</ref>{{request quotation|date=January 2016}}

There is a tradition that the Apostle John was the author of the Gospel of John. Traditionalists (such as Biblical commentators Albert Barnes and Matthew Henry) seem to support the idea that the writer of the Gospel of John himself claimed to be an eyewitness in their commentaries of John 21:24 and therefore the gospel was written by an eyewitness;<ref>{{Cite book|last=Barnes |first=Albert |title=Barnes' Notes on the New Testament |year=1962 |orig-year=1832 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qvXCoSQ1y0EC&pg=PA360 |publisher=Kregel Publications |page=360}}</ref><ref name=Henry>{{Cite book|last=Henry |first=Matthew |title=Matthew Henry Complete Commentary on the Whole Bible |orig-year=1706 |url=http://www.studylight.org/commentaries/mhm/john-21.html |publisher=StudyLight.org}}</ref> however, this idea is rejected by the majority of modern scholars.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Johannine Literature|last1=Lindars|first1=Barnabas|authorlink1 = Barnabas Lindars |last2=Edwards|first2=Ruth B.|last3=Court|first3=John M.|year=2000|publisher=Sheffield Academic Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qVOD0PhayhsC&pg=PA41|ref=harv|pages=41–43}}</ref>

A review of [[Richard Bauckham]]'s book ''Jesus and the Eyewitnesses: The Gospels as Eyewitness Testimony'' states "The common wisdom in the academy is that stories and sayings of Jesus circulated for decades, undergoing countless retellings and embellishments before being finally set down in writing."<ref name="HahnScott2007">{{cite book|editor-first1=Scott W.|editor-last1=Hahn|editor-first2=David|editor-last2=Scott|title=Letter & Spirit, Volume 3: The Hermeneutic of Continuity: Christ, Kingdom, and Creation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vJ-fd4hQQJ0C&pg=PA225|date=1 September 2007|publisher=Emmaus Road Publishing|isbn=978-1-931018-46-3|page=225}}</ref>

Most scholars hold to the [[two-source hypothesis]], which claims that the [[Marcan priority|Gospel of Mark was written first]]. According to the hypothesis, the authors of the Gospel of Matthew and the Gospel of Luke then used the Gospel of Mark and the hypothetical [[Q document]], in addition to some other sources, to write their individual gospel accounts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/mark.html |title=Gospel of Mark |publisher=Early Christian Writings |accessdate=15 January 2008 |last=Kirby |first=Peter}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Achtemeier |first=Paul J. |encyclopedia=The Anchor Bible Dictionary |title=The Gospel of Mark |year=1992 |publisher=Doubleday |volume=4 |location=New York |isbn=0-385-19362-9 |page=545}}</ref><ref>Easton, M. G. (1996) [ca. 1897] "Luke, Gospel According To". ''Easton's Bible Dictionary''. Oak Harbor, WA, USA: Logos Research.</ref><ref>{{Cite book| last = Meier | first = John P. | authorlink = John P. Meier | title = A Marginal Jew | publisher = Doubleday | year = 1991 | location = New York | volume = 2 | pages = 955–6 | isbn = 0-385-46993-4 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| last = Helms | first = Randel | title = Who Wrote the Gospels? | publisher = Millennium Press | year = 1997 | location = Altadena, California | page = 8 | isbn = 0-9655047-2-7 }}</ref> These three gospels are called the Synoptic gospels because they include many of the same stories, often in the same sequence, and sometimes exactly the same wording. Scholars agree that the Gospel of John was written last, by using a different tradition and body of testimony. In addition, most scholars agree that the author of Luke wrote the Acts of the Apostles. Scholars hold that these books constituted two halves of a single work, [[Luke-Acts]].

[[File:The Evangelist Matthew Inspired by an Angel.jpg|thumb|''Evangelist Mathäus und der Engel'', by [[Rembrandt]].]]
Strictly speaking, each gospel and the book of Acts is arguably anonymous.<ref name="Harris">{{cite book |last=Harris |first=Stephen L. |authorlink=Stephen L. Harris |year=1985 |title=Understanding the Bible |location=Palo Alto, California |publisher=Mayfield |ref=harv}}{{page needed|date=February 2016}}</ref> The Gospel of John is somewhat of an exception, although the author simply refers to himself as "the disciple Jesus loved" and claims to be a member of Jesus' inner circle.<ref name="Harris John">{{harvp|Harris|1985|pp=302–310}}</ref> The identities of each author were agreed upon at an early date, certainly no later than the early 2nd century. It is likely that the issue of the authorship of each gospel had been settled at least somewhat earlier,<ref>{{cite book |last=Guthrie |first=Donald |year=1990 |title=New Testament Introduction |location=Leicester, UK |publisher=Apollos |page=114 |ref=harv}}</ref> as the earliest sources are in complete agreement on the issue.<ref name="Donald Guthrie 1990 pp. 37-40">{{harvp|Guthrie|1990|pp=37–40}}</ref> No one questioned the early 2nd century consensus until the 18th century.<ref name="Donald Guthrie 1990 pp. 37-40"/>

Some scholars today maintain the traditional claim that [[Luke the Evangelist]], an associate of [[St. Paul]] who was probably not an eyewitness to Jesus' ministry, wrote the Gospel of Luke and Acts of the Apostles.<ref name="Donald Guthrie 1990 pp. 37-40"/><ref name="H. Marshall, 1980 pp. 44-45">To list just some further scholars: I. H. Marshall, ''Acts'' (1980), pp. 44–45;{{full citation needed|date=February 2016}} F. F. Bruce, ''The Acts of the Apostles'' (1952), pp. 1–6;{{full citation needed|date=February 2016}} C. S. C. Williams, ''The Acts of the Apostles'', in ''Black's New Testament Commentary'' (1957);{{full citation needed|date=February 2016}} W. Michaelis, ''Einleitung'', pp. 61–64;{{full citation needed|date=February 2016}} Bo Reicke, ''Glaube und Leben Der Urgenmeinde'' (1957), pp. 6–7;{{full citation needed|date=February 2016}} F. V. Filson, ''Three Crucial Decades'' (1963), p. 10;{{full citation needed|date=February 2016}} M. Dibelius, ''Studies in the Acts of the Apostles'' (1956);{{full citation needed|date=February 2016}} R. M. Grant, ''A Historical Introduction to the New Testament'' (1963), pp. 134–135;{{full citation needed|date=February 2016}} B. Gärtner, ''The Aeropagus Speech and Natural Revelation'' (1955);{{full citation needed|date=February 2016}} W. L. Knox, ''Sources of the Synoptic Gospels'';{{full citation needed|date=February 2016}} R. R. Williams, ''The Acts of the Apostles'';{{full citation needed|date=February 2016}} E. M. Blaiklock, ''The Acts of the Apostles'', in ''Tyndale New Testament Commentary'' (1959);{{full citation needed|date=February 2016}} W. Grundmann, ''Das Evangelium nach Lukas'', p. 39.{{full citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref> Scholars are also divided on the traditional claim that [[Mark the Evangelist]], an associate of [[St. Peter]] who may have been an eyewitness to Jesus' ministry, wrote the Gospel of Mark.<ref name="Bernd">Kollmann, Bernd (2004). ''Joseph Barnabas''. Collegeville, Minnesota, USA: Liturgical Press. p. 30.</ref> Scholars are more divided over the traditional claim that Matthew the Apostle wrote the Gospel of Matthew<ref>Wood, D. R. W. (1996). ''New Bible Dictionary''. Downers Grove, Illinois, USA: InterVarsity Press. p. 739.</ref><ref>Eusebius. [http://biblehub.com/library/pamphilius/church_history/chapter_xxxix_the_writings_of_papias.htm "The Writings of Papias"]. ''Church History''. "On the tradition that Matthew wrote a Hebrew gospel, see above, chap. 24, note 5. Our Greek Gospel of Matthew was certainly in existence at the time Papias wrote, for it is quoted in the epistle of Barnabas."</ref> and that John the Apostle wrote the Gospel of John.<ref name="ODCC self John">Cross, F. L., ed. (2005). "John, Gospel of". ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church''. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.</ref><ref name="newadvent.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08438a.htm |last=Fonck |first=Leopold |title=Gospel of St. John |work=The Catholic Encyclopedia |volume=8 |location=New York |publisher=Robert Appleton Company |year=1910}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/304610/Gospel-According-to-John |title=Gospel According to John |work=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate=19 November 2010}}</ref> Opinion, however, is widely divided on this issue and there is no widespread consensus.<ref name="brown164">{{Cite book|last=Brown |first=Raymond E. |authorlink=Raymond E. Brown |title=Introduction to the New Testament |year=1997 |publisher=Anchor Bible |location=New York |isbn=0-385-24767-2 |page=164}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/mark.html |title=Gospel of Mark |publisher=Early Christian Writings |accessdate=17 February 2016}}</ref>

===Acts===
{{Main article|Authorship of Luke–Acts}}
The Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles were both written by the same author, and are thus referred to as the Lucan texts.<ref>Horrell, D. G. (2006). ''An Introduction to the Study of Paul''. 2nd ed. London, ENG: Bloomsbury-T&T Clark. p.7.</ref><ref>Knox, W. L. (1948). ''The Acts of the Apostles''. p. 2-15, for detailed arguments.{{full citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref> The most direct evidence comes from the prefaces of each book; both were addressed to [[Theophilus (Biblical)|Theophilus]], and the preface to the Acts of the Apostles references "my former book" about the ministry of Jesus.{{citation needed|date=February 2016}} Furthermore, there are linguistic and theological similarities between the two works, suggesting that they have a common author.<ref>Kenny, A. (1986). ''A Stylometric Study of the New Testament.''{{full citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref><ref>[[Udo Schnelle|Schelle, Udo]]. ''The History and Theology of the New Testament Writings.'' p. 259.{{full citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref><ref>Bruce, F. F. (1952). ''The Acts of the Apostles''. p. 2.{{full citation needed|date=February 2016}}</ref>


===Pauline epistles===
{{Main article|Authorship of the Pauline epistles}}
[[File:PaulT.jpg|thumb|''Saint Paul Writing His Epistles'', 17th-century painting. Most scholars think Paul actually dictated his letters to a secretary.]]
The Pauline epistles are the thirteen books in the New Testament traditionally attributed to [[Paul of Tarsus]]. The anonymous Epistle to the Hebrews is, despite unlikely Pauline authorship, often functionally grouped with these thirteen to form a corpus of fourteen "Pauline" epistles.{{refn|group=note|Although Hebrews was almost certainly not written by Paul, it has been a part of the Pauline corpus "from the beginning of extant MS production".<ref name=hebot01>{{cite web |last=Wallace |first=Daniel B. |url=https://bible.org/seriespage/19-hebrews-introduction-argument-and-outline |title=Hebrews: Introduction, Argument, and Outline |publisher=Bible.org |date=28 June 2004}}</ref>}}

Seven letters are generally classified as "undisputed", expressing contemporary scholarly near consensus that they are the work of Paul: Romans, 1 Corinthians, 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Philippians, 1 Thessalonians and Philemon. Six additional letters bearing Paul's name do not currently enjoy the same academic consensus: Ephesians, Colossians, 2 Thessalonians, 1 Timothy, 2 Timothy and Titus.{{refn|group=note|name="Lock, Meinertz p.622"|Guthrie lists: ohlenberg, Lock, Meinertz, Thornell, Schlatter, Spicq, [[Jeremais|Jeremias]], Simpson, Kelly, and Fee"<ref>{{harvp|Guthrie|1990|p=622}}</ref>}}

While many scholars uphold the traditional view, some question whether the first three, called the "Deutero-Pauline Epistles", are authentic letters of Paul. As for the latter three, the "Pastoral epistles", some scholars uphold the traditional view of these as the genuine writings of the Apostle Paul;<ref group="note" name="Lock, Meinertz p.622"/> most, however, regard them as [[Pseudepigraphy|pseudepigrapha]].<ref>Ehrman (2004), p. 385.{{full citation needed|date=May 2016}}</ref>

One might refer to the [[Epistle to the Laodiceans]] and the [[Third Epistle to the Corinthians]] as examples of works identified as pseudonymous. Since the early centuries of the church, there has been debate concerning the authorship of the anonymous Epistle to the Hebrews, and contemporary scholars generally reject Pauline authorship.<ref name="Ehrman 2004:411"/>

The epistles all share common themes, emphasis, vocabulary and style; they exhibit a uniformity of doctrine concerning the [[Ten Commandments|Mosaic Law]], Jesus, faith, and various other issues. All of these letters easily fit into the chronology of Paul's journeys depicted in Acts of the Apostles.

===Other epistles===
The author of the [[Epistle of James]] identifies himself in the opening verse as "James, a servant of [[God]] and of the Lord [[Jesus]] Christ". From the middle of the 3rd century, [[patristic]] authors cited the ''Epistle'' as written by [[James the Just]].<ref>[http://www.catholicity.com/encyclopedia/j/james,epistle_of_st.html "Epistle of St. James"]. ''1914 Catholic Encyclopedia''.</ref> Ancient and modern scholars have always been divided on the issue of authorship. Many consider the epistle to be written in the late 1st or early 2nd centuries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://earlychristianwritings.com/james.html |title=Epistle of James |publisher=Early Christian Writings |accessdate=19 November 2010}}</ref>

The author of the [[First Epistle of Peter]] identifies himself in the opening verse as "Peter, an [[Apostle (Christian)|apostle]] of Jesus Christ", and the view that the epistle was written by St. Peter is attested to by a number of [[Church Fathers]]: [[Irenaeus]] (140–203), [[Tertullian]] (150–222), [[Clement of Alexandria]] (155–215) and [[Origen of Alexandria]] (185–253). Unlike [[The Second Epistle of Peter]], the authorship of which was debated in antiquity, there was little debate about Peter's authorship of this first epistle until the 18th century. Although 2 Peter internally purports to be a work of the apostle, many biblical scholars have concluded that Peter is not the author.<ref>{{cite book |title=What Are They Saying About the Catholic Epistles? |first=Philip B. |last=Harner |page=49 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xenz0ZMWDNsC&pg=PA49 |publisher=Paulist Press |year=2004|isbn=9780809141883 }}</ref> For an early date and (usually) for a defense of the Apostle Peter's authorship see Kruger,<ref>Kruger, M.J. (1999). [https://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/2peter_kruger.pdf "The Authenticity of 2 Peter"]. ''[[Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society]]''. '''42''' (4): 645–671.</ref> Zahn,<ref>e.g. Zahn, S. T. ''Introduction to the New Testament, Vol. II''. p. 250.</ref> Spitta,<ref>Spitta, F. (1885). ''Der Zweite Brief des Petrus und der Brief des Judas''.</ref> Bigg,<ref>Bigg, C. "The Epistles of St Peter and St Jude". ''International Critical Commentary''.</ref> and Green.<ref>e.g. Green, E. M. B. (1961). ''2 Peter Reconsidered''.</ref>

The Epistle of Jude title is written as follows: "Jude, a servant of Jesus Christ and a brother of James" ([[New Revised Standard Version|NRSV]]). The debate has continued over the author's identity as the apostle, the brother of Jesus, both, or neither.<ref>Bauckham, R. J. (1986). ''Word Biblical Commentary, Vol. 50''. Word (UK) Ltd. p. 14f.</ref>

===Johannine works===
{{Main article|Authorship of the Johannine works}}
The [[First Epistle of John]] is traditionally held to have been composed by [[John the Apostle]] (the author of the [[Gospel of John]]) when the writer was in advanced age. The epistle's content, language and conceptual style indicate that it may have had the same author as the Gospel of John, 2 John and 3 John.<ref name="Harris 1John">{{harvp|Harris|1985|loc="1 John"|pp=355–356}}</ref> [[Eusebius]] claimed that the author of 2nd and 3rd John was not [[John the Apostle]], but an "elder John" which refers either to the apostle at an advanced age or a hypothetical second individual ("[[John the Elder]]").<ref>Eusebius. "Chapter 39". [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250103.htm ''The Church History, Book III''].</ref> Scholars today are divided on the issue.

===Revelation===
The author of the [[Book of Revelation]] identifies himself several times as "John".{{Bibleref2c|Rev.|1:1,4,9;22:8||Rev. 1:1, 4, 9; 22:8}} and states that he was on [[Patmos]] when he received his first vision.{{Bibleref2c|Rev.|1:9;4:1-2||Rev. 1:9; 4:1-2}} As a result, the author is sometimes referred to as [[John of Patmos]]. The author has traditionally been identified with [[John the Apostle]] to whom the [[Gospel of John|Gospel]] and the [[epistles of John]] were attributed. It was believed that he was exiled to the island of Patmos during the reign of the [[Roman emperor]] [[Domitian]], and there wrote Revelation. [[Justin Martyr]] (c. 100–165 AD) who was acquainted with [[Polycarp]], who had been mentored by John, makes a possible allusion to this book, and credits John as the source.<ref>Justin Martyr. ''[[Dialogue with Trypho]]''. Chapter LXXXI.</ref> [[Irenaeus]] (c. 115–202) assumes it as a conceded point. According to the ''Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible'', modern scholars are divided between the apostolic view and several alternative hypotheses put forth in the last hundred years or so.<ref>Tenney, Merrill C., gen. ed. (2009). "Revelation, Book of the". ''Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible, Vol. 5 (Q-Z)''. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan.</ref> [[Ben Witherington]] points out that linguistic evidence makes it unlikely that the books were written by the same person.<ref>Witherington, Ben (2003). ''Revelation''. Cambridge University Press. p. 2.</ref>

==Dates of composition==
:''See individual book articles for more detail.''
The earliest works that became part of the New Testament are the letters of the Apostle Paul. The earliest of the books of the New Testament was [[First Thessalonians]], an epistle of [[Paul of Tarsus|Paul]], written probably in 51, or possibly [[Epistle to the Galatians|Galatians]] in 49 according to one of two theories of its writing.

In the 1830s German scholars of the [[Tübingen school]] tried to date the books as late as the 3rd century, but the discovery of some [[Biblical manuscript|New Testament manuscripts]] and fragments from the 2nd and 3rd centuries, one of which dates as early as 125 ([[Papyrus 52]]), disproves a 3rd-century date of composition for any book now in the New Testament. Additionally, a [[First Epistle of Clement|letter to the church at Corinth]] in the name of [[Clement I|Clement of Rome]] in 95 quotes from 10 of the 27 books of the New Testament, and a [[Polycarp's letter to the Philippians|letter to the church at Philippi in the name of Polycarp]] in 120 quotes from 16 books. Therefore, some of the books of the New Testament must have been in circulation by the end of the first century.

Scholars hold a wide spectrum of views on exactly when the books of the new testament were written, with non-fundamentalist scholars tending to argue for later dates, and more conservative scholars arguing for an earlier one. Most contemporary scholars regard [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]] as a source used by Luke (see [[Marcan priority]]).<ref>Koester, Helmut (1999). ''Ancient Christian Gospels''. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: Trinity Press International. p. 336.</ref> If it is true that Mark was written around the destruction of the [[Temple of Jerusalem]], around 70,<ref name = "TM1998 Mark">Theissen, Gerd; Merz, Annette (1996). ''The Historical Jesus: A Comprehensive Guide''. Fortress Press. (1996 edition). p. 24-27.</ref> they theorize that Luke would not have been written before 70. Some who take this view believe that Luke's prediction of the destruction of the temple could not be a result of Jesus predicting the future but with the benefit of hindsight regarding specific details. They believe that the [[Olivet Discourse]] in {{Bibleref2|Luke|21:5–30}} is specific enough (more specific than Mark's or Matthew's) that a date after 70 seems likely.<ref name="ODCC self Matthew">Cross, F. L., ed. (2005). "Matthew, Gospel according to St". ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church''. New York: Oxford University Press.</ref>{{refn|group=note|S. Brown agrees that the references to the Jerusalem temple's destruction are seen as evidence of a post-70 date.<ref>Brown, Schuyler. (1993). ''The Origins of Christianity: A Historical Introduction to the New Testament''. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 24.</ref>}} These scholars have suggested dates for Luke from 75 to 100.

Support for a later date comes from a number of reasons. Differences of chronology, "style", and theology suggest that the author of Luke-Acts was not familiar with [[Pauline Christianity|Paul's distinctive theology]] but instead was writing a decade or more after his death, by which point significant harmonization between different traditions within [[Early Christianity]] had occurred.<ref>Brown, Schuyler (1993). ''The Origins of Christianity: A Historical Introduction to the New Testament''. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 29.</ref> Furthermore, Luke-Acts has views on [[christology|Jesus' divine nature]], [[eschatology|the end times]], and [[soteriology|salvation]] that are similar to those found in [[Pastoral epistles]], which are often seen as [[pseudonym]]ous and of a later date than [[Authorship of the Pauline Epistles|the undisputed]] [[Pauline Epistles]].<ref>Brown, Schuyler (1993). ''The Origins of Christianity: A Historical Introduction to the New Testament''. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 27.</ref>

Most conservative scholars however, argue that both [[internal evidence|internal]] and [[external evidence|external]] evidence strongly points to dates prior to 70 AD for the [[Synoptic Gospels]], [[Book of Acts|Acts]], and the [[Pauline Epistles]]. They note that there is no mention of the deaths of [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]], [[Saint Peter|Peter]], and [[James the Just|James]], all of which happened between 60–65 AD, in any book of the New Testament. These were all extremely important figures in the [[Early Christianity|early church]], writers would have mentioned their deaths if the New Testament had been written later.<ref name ="Robinson" /> Furthermore, the Gospels contain numerous attacks on the [[Sadducees]], a sect of Judaism that was wiped out with the destruction of the temple. Why, they ask, would later writers devote so much narrative space to attacking a group that no longer existed?<ref name="Wallace">{{cite web
| url =https://bible.org/seriespage/matthew-introduction-argument-and-outline
| title =Matthew: Introduction, Argument, and Outline
| last =Wallace
| first =Daniel
| date =June 18, 2004
| website =www.bible.org
| publisher =bible.org
| access-date =2016-08-16
| quote = }}</ref>

[[John Robinson (bishop of Woolwich)|John Robinson]] also notes that each book of the New Testament had to be written prior to the destruction of The Temple. Robinson notes that most scholars interpret the [[Olivet Discourse]] as a post 70 AD account of the [[Siege of Jerusalem (AD 70)|destruction of The Temple]], couched in language to make it appear to be a prophecy, culminating in the [[Second Coming]] of Jesus to end the world. Robinson notes that the Second Coming did not occur after the destruction of The Temple, leading him to ask, why would a writer in the 80s or 90s forge a prophecy of an event that is proven not to have occurred 20 years earlier?<ref name="Robinson">{{cite book| first = John Arthur Thomas | last = Robinson|title= Redating the New Testament|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=CSMFAAAACAAJ|date= 1 October 2000| origyear = 1976 | publisher=Wipf & Stock |isbn=978-1-57910-527-3 | author-mask = 3}}</ref>

==Language==
{{main article|Language of the New Testament}}
The major languages spoken by both Jews and Greeks in the [[Holy Land]] at the [[Cultural and historical background of Jesus|time of Jesus]] were [[Aramaic of Jesus|Aramaic]] and [[Koine Greek]], and also a colloquial dialect of [[Mishnaic Hebrew]]. It is generally agreed by most scholars that the [[historical Jesus]] primarily spoke [[Aramaic of Jesus|Aramaic]],<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary|title=Aramaic|quote=It is generally agreed that Aramaic was the common language of Israel in the 1st century AD. Jesus and his disciples spoke the Galilean dialect, which was distinguished from that of Jerusalem (Matt. 26:73).|page=72|isbn=0-8028-2402-1|editor=Myers, Allen C. |location=Grand Rapids, Michigan|publisher=William B. Eerdmans|year=1987}}</ref> perhaps also some [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] and [[Koine Greek]]. The majority view is that all of the books that would eventually form the New Testament were written in the Koine Greek language.<ref>Metzger, Bruce M.; Ehrman, Bart D. (2005). ''The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration''. 4th ed. Oxford University Press.</ref><ref>Aland, K.; Aland, B. (1995). ''The Text of the New Testament''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. {{ISBN|9780802840981}}.</ref>

[[Early centers of Christianity|As Christianity spread]], these books were later translated into other languages, most notably, [[Latin]], [[Syriac language|Syriac]], and [[Coptic language|Egyptian Coptic]]. However, some of the [[Church Fathers]]<ref>Koester, Helmut (1982). ''Introduction to the New Testament, Volume 2''. Philadelphia. p. 172.</ref> imply or claim that Matthew was originally written in [[Hebrew Gospel of Matthew|Hebrew]] or [[Aramaic Matthew|Aramaic]], and then soon after was written in Koine Greek. Nevertheless, the Gospel of Matthew known today was composed in Greek and is neither directly dependent upon nor a translation of a text in a [[Semitic languages|Semitic language]].<ref>Davies, W. D.; Allison, Dale C. (1988). ''A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on The Gospel according to Saint Matthew, Vol. 1''. Edinburgh: T&T Clark. pp. 33–58.</ref>

==Development of the New Testament canon==
{{Main article|Development of the New Testament canon}}
The process of canonization of the New Testament was complex and lengthy. In the initial centuries of [[early Christianity]], there were many books widely considered by the church to be inspired, but there was no single formally recognized New Testament canon.<ref>Eusebius. "Chapter 25". [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/250103.htm ''Church History, Book III''].</ref> The process was characterized by a compilation of books that [[Sacred tradition|apostolic tradition]] considered authoritative in worship and teaching, relevant to the historical situations in which they lived, and consonant with the Old Testament.<ref>Gamble, Harry Y. (1985). ''The New Testament Canon: Its Making and Meaning''. Guides to Biblical Scholarship. Philadelphia: Fortress.</ref> Writings attributed to the apostles circulated among the [[Early centers of Christianity|earliest Christian communities]] and the Pauline epistles were circulating, perhaps in collected forms, by the end of the [[Christianity in the 1st century|1st century AD]].<ref>Three forms are postulated, from ''The Canon Debate'', chapter 18, page 300, note 21, attributed to Harry Y. Gamble: "(1) Marcion's collection that begins with Galatians and ends with Philemon; (2) Papyrus 46, dated about 200, that follows the order that became established except for reversing Ephesians and Galatians; and (3) the letters to seven churches, treating those to the same church as one letter and basing the order on length, so that Corinthians is first and Colossians (perhaps including Philemon) is last."</ref>

One of the earliest attempts at solidifying a canon was made by [[Marcion]], ''circa'' 140 AD, who accepted only a modified version of Luke (the [[Gospel of Marcion]]) and ten of Paul's letters, while rejecting the Old Testament entirely. His canon was increasingly rejected by other groups of Christians, notably the [[Proto-orthodox Christianity|proto-orthodox Christians]], as was his theology, [[Marcionism]]. [[Adolf Harnack]] in ''Origin of the New Testament'' (1914) observed that the church gradually formulated its New Testament canon in response to the challenge posed by Marcion.<ref>{{cite book |last=Harnack |first=Adolf |chapter-url=http://www.ccel.org/ccel/harnack/origin_nt.v.vi.html |title=Origin of the New Testament |chapter=Appendix VI |publisher=Christian Classics Ethereal Library}}</ref>

[[Justin Martyr]], [[Irenaeus]] and [[Tertullian]] held the letters of Paul to be on par with the Hebrew Scriptures as being divinely inspired, yet others rejected him. Other books were held in high esteem but were gradually relegated to the status of [[New Testament apocrypha]]. Justin Martyr, in the mid [[Christianity in the 2nd century|2nd century]], mentions "memoirs of the apostles" as being read on Sunday alongside the [[Nevi'im|"writings of the prophets"]].<ref name="ReferenceA">Justin Martyr. [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0126.htm ''First Apology'']. Chapter 67.</ref>

The [[Muratorian fragment]], dated at between 170 and as late as the end of the 4th century (according to the [[Anchor Bible Series#Anchor Bible Dictionary|Anchor Bible Dictionary]]), may be the earliest known New Testament canon attributed to mainstream Christianity. It is similar, but not identical, to the modern New Testament canon.

The oldest clear endorsement of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John being the only legitimate gospels was written ''circa'' 180 AD. A four gospel canon (the ''Tetramorph'') was asserted by Irenaeus, who refers to it directly<ref>{{cite book |last=Ferguson |first=Everett |year=2002 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kxW-AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT345 |chapter=Factors leading to the Selection and Closure of the New Testament Canon |editor-last1=McDonald |editor-first1=L. M. |editor-last2=Sanders |editor-first2=J. A. |title=The Canon Debate |publisher=Hendrickson |pages=301ff |ref=harv|isbn=9781441241634 }}</ref><ref name=AHIII8>Irenaeus. [http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iv.xii.html "Chapter XI"]. ''Against Heresies, Book III''. Section 8.</ref> in his [[polemic]] ''Against the Heresies'', "It is not possible that the gospels can be either more or fewer in number than they are. For, since there are four zones of the world in which we live, and four principal winds, while the church is scattered throughout all the world, and the "pillar and ground" of the church is the gospel and the spirit of life; it is fitting that she should have four pillars, breathing out immortality on every side, and vivifying men afresh."<ref name=AHIII8/> The books considered to be authoritative by Irenaeus included the four gospels and many of the letters of Paul, although, based on the arguments Irenaeus made in support of only four authentic gospels, some interpreters deduce that the fourfold Gospel must have still been a novelty in Irenaeus's time.<ref>{{cite book |editor-last1=McDonald |editor-first1=L. M |editor-last2=Sanders |editor-first2=J. A. |year=2002 |title=The Canon Debate |publisher=Hendrickson |page=277 |ref={{harvid|McDonald|Sanders|2002}}}}</ref>

===Origen (3rd century)===
By the early 200s, [[Origen]] may have been using the same twenty-seven books as in the Catholic New Testament canon, though there were still disputes over the canonicity of the Letter to the Hebrews, Epistle of James, II Peter, II John and III John and the Book of Revelation,<ref>Noll, Mark A. (1997). ''Turning Points''. Baker Academic. pp 36–37.</ref> known as the [[Antilegomena]]. Likewise, the [[Muratorian fragment]] is evidence that, perhaps as early as 200, there existed a set of Christian writings somewhat similar to the twenty-seven book NT canon, which included four gospels and argued against objections to them.<ref>de Jonge, H. J. (2003). "The New Testament Canon". In de Jonge, H. J.; Auwers, J. M (eds.). ''The Biblical Canons''. Leuven University Press. p. 315.</ref> Thus, while there was a good measure of debate in the [[Early Church]] over the New Testament canon, the major writings are claimed to have been accepted by almost all Christians by the middle of the [[Christianity in the 3rd century|3rd century]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The Cambridge History of the Bible, Vol. 1 |author=Ackroyd, P. R.; Evans, C. F. (eds.) |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1970 |page=308 |ref={{harvid|Ackroyd|Evans|1970}}}}</ref>

Origen was largely responsible for the collection of usage information regarding the texts that became the New Testament. The information used to create the late-4th-century [[Easter Letter]], which declared accepted Christian writings, was probably based on the ''Ecclesiastical History'' [HE] of [[Eusebius of Caesarea]], wherein he uses the information passed on to him by Origen to create both his list at HE 3:25 and Origen's list at HE 6:25. Eusebius got his information about what texts were then accepted and what were then [[Antilegomena|disputed]], by the [[Early centers of Christianity|third-century churches throughout the known world]], a great deal of which Origen knew of firsthand from his extensive travels, from the library and writings of Origen.<ref>Bateman, C. G. (2010). [http://ssrn.com/abstract=1653073 "Origen’s Role in the Formation of the New Testament Canon"]. Social Science Research Network.</ref>

In fact, Origen would have possibly included in his list of "inspired writings" other texts kept out by the likes of Eusebius—including the [[Epistle of Barnabas]], [[Shepherd of Hermas]], and [[1 Clement]]. Notwithstanding these facts, "Origen is not the originator of the idea of biblical canon, but he certainly gives the philosophical and literary-interpretative underpinnings for the whole notion."<ref>McGuckin, John A. (2003). "Origen as Literary Critic in the Alexandrian Tradition". In Perrone, L. (ed.). ''Origeniana Octava: Origen and the Alexandrian Tradition, Vol. 1''. Bibliotheca Ephemeridum Theologicarum Lovaniensium 164. Leuven: Leuven University Press. pp. 121–37.</ref>

===Eusebius's Ecclesiastical History===
[[Eusebius]], ''circa'' 300, gave a detailed list of New Testament writings in his ''Ecclesiastical History'' [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-01/Npnf2-01-08.htm#P1497_696002 Book 3], Chapter XXV:
: "1... First then must be put the holy quaternion of the gospels; following them the Acts of the Apostles... the epistles of Paul... the epistle of John... the epistle of Peter... After them is to be placed, if it really seem proper, the Book of Revelation, concerning which we shall give the different opinions at the proper time. These then belong among the accepted writings."

: "3 Among the disputed writings, which are nevertheless recognized by many, are extant the so-called epistle of James and that of Jude, also the second epistle of Peter, and those that are called the second and third of John, whether they belong to the evangelist or to another person of the same name. Among the rejected [Kirsopp Lake translation: "not genuine"] writings must be reckoned also the [[Acts of Paul]], and the so-called [[Shepherd of Hermas|Shepherd]], and the [[Apocalypse of Peter]], and in addition to these the extant [[epistle of Barnabas]], and the so-called [[Didache|Teachings of the Apostles]]; and besides, as I said, the [[Book of Revelation|Apocalypse of John]], if it seem proper, which some, as I said, reject, but which others class with the accepted books. And among these some have placed also the [[Gospel of the Hebrews|Gospel according to the Hebrews]]... And all these may be reckoned among the disputed books."

: "6... such books as the [[Gospel of Peter|Gospels of Peter]], of [[Gospel of Thomas|Thomas]], of [[Gospel of Matthias|Matthias]], or of any others besides them, and the [[Acts of Andrew]] and [[Acts of John|John]] and the other apostles... they clearly show themselves to be the fictions of heretics. Wherefore they are not to be placed even among the rejected writings, but are all of them to be cast aside as absurd and impious."

The Book of Revelation is counted as both accepted (Kirsopp Lake translation: "Recognized") and disputed, which has caused some confusion over what exactly Eusebius meant by doing so. From other writings of the church fathers, it was disputed with several canon lists rejecting its canonicity. EH 3.3.5 adds further detail on Paul: "Paul's fourteen epistles are well known and undisputed. It is not indeed right to overlook the fact that some have rejected the Epistle to the Hebrews, saying that it is disputed by the church of Rome, on the ground that it was not written by Paul." EH 4.29.6 mentions the [[Diatessaron]]: "But their original founder, Tatian, formed a certain combination and collection of the gospels, I know not how, to which he gave the title Diatessaron, and which is still in the hands of some. But they say that he ventured to paraphrase certain words of the apostle Paul, in order to improve their style."

===4th century and later===
In his Easter letter of 367, [[Athanasius]], Bishop of Alexandria, gave a list of the books that would become the twenty-seven-book NT canon,<ref name="LindbergCarter">{{cite book|title=A Brief History of Christianity |first=Carter |last=Lindberg |page=15|year=2006|publisher=Blackwell Publishing|isbn=1-4051-1078-3}}</ref> and he used the word "canonized" (''kanonizomena'') in regards to them.<ref>Brakke, David (Oct 1994). "Canon Formation and Social Conflict in Fourth Century Egypt: Athanasius of Alexandria's Thirty Ninth Festal Letter". ''Harvard Theological Review'' '''87''' (4): 395–419.</ref> The first council that accepted the present canon of the New Testament may have been the [[Synod of Hippo|Synod of Hippo Regius]] in North Africa (393 AD); the acts of this council, however, are lost. A brief summary of the acts was read at and accepted by the [[Council of Carthage (397)]] and the [[Council of Carthage (419)]].<ref name=McDonaldD2>{{harvp|McDonald|Sanders|2002|loc=Appendix D-2, note 19}} "Revelation was added later in 419 at the subsequent synod of Carthage."</ref> These councils were under the authority of [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]], who regarded the canon as already closed.<ref name=Ferguson320>{{harvp|Ferguson|2002|p=320}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Bruce |first=F. F. |year=1988 |title=The Canon of Scripture |publisher=Intervarsity Press |page=230 |ref=harv}}</ref><ref>Augustine. ''De Civitate Dei''. 22.8.</ref>

[[Pope Damasus I]]'s [[Council of Rome]] in 382, if the ''[[Decretum Gelasianum]]'' is correctly associated with it, issued a biblical canon identical to that mentioned above,<ref name="LindbergCarter" /> or, if not, the list is at least a 6th-century compilation.<ref name="Bruce 1988 234">{{harvp|Bruce|1988|p=234}}</ref> Likewise, Damasus' commissioning of the Latin [[Vulgate]] edition of the Bible, c. 383, was instrumental in the fixation of the canon in the West.<ref name="Bruce 1988 225">{{harvp|Bruce|1988|p=225}}</ref> In ''c.'' 405, [[Pope Innocent I]] sent a list of the sacred books to a Gallic bishop, [[Exuperius|Exsuperius of Toulouse]]. Christian scholars assert that, when these [[bishops]] and councils spoke on the matter, however, they were not defining something new but instead "were ratifying what had already become the mind of the Church."<ref name=Ferguson320/><ref name="Metzger 1987 237–238">{{cite book |first=Bruce |last=Metzger |title=The Canon of the New Testament: Its Origins, Development, and Significance |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon |year=1987 |pages=237–238 |ref=harv}}</ref><ref name="Bruce">{{harvp|Bruce|1988|p=97}}</ref>

The New Testament canon as it is now was first listed by [[Athanasius of Alexandria|St. Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria]], in 367, in a letter written to his churches in Egypt, [http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/NPNF2-04/Npnf2-04-93.htm Festal Letter 39]. Also cited is the [[Council of Rome]], but not without controversy. That canon gained wider and wider recognition until it was accepted at the [[Third Council of Carthage]] in 397 and 419.{{refn|group=note|The [[Book of Revelation]] wasn't added till the [[Council of Carthage (419)]].<ref name=McDonaldD2/>}}

Even this council did not settle the matter, however. Certain books, referred to as [[Antilegomena]], continued to be questioned, especially [[Epistle of James|James]] and [[Book of Revelation|Revelation]]. Even as late as the 16th century, the Reformer [[Martin Luther]] questioned (but in the end did not reject) the [[Epistle of James]], the [[Epistle of Jude]], the [[Epistle to the Hebrews]] and the [[Book of Revelation]]. To this day, German-language [[Luther Bible]]s are printed with these four books at the end of the canon, rather than in their traditional order as in other editions of the Bible.

In light of this questioning of the canon of Scripture by Protestants in the 16th century, the (Roman Catholic) [[Council of Trent]] reaffirmed the traditional western canon (i.e., the canon accepted at the 4th-century [[Council of Rome]] and [[Council of Carthage]]), thus making the [[Canon of Trent]] and the [[Vulgate]] Bible [[Roman Catholic Dogma|dogma]] in the Catholic Church. Later, [[Pope Pius XI]] on 2 June 1927 decreed the [[Comma Johanneum]] was open to dispute and [[Pope Pius XII]] on 3 September 1943 issued the encyclical ''[[Divino afflante Spiritu]]'', which allowed translations based on other versions than just the Latin [[Vulgate]], notably in English the [[New American Bible]].

Thus, some claim that, from the [[Christianity in the 4th century#Defining scripture|4th century]], there existed unanimity in the [[Western Church|West]] concerning the New Testament canon (as it is today),<ref>{{harvp|Bruce|1988|p=215}}</ref> and that, by the [[Christianity in the 5th century|5th century]], the [[Eastern Church]], with a few exceptions, had come to accept the [[Book of Revelation]] and thus had come into harmony on the matter of the canon.<ref name="P. R. Ackroyd and C. F. Evans, eds. 1970 305">{{harvp|Ackroyd|Evans|1970|p=305}}</ref> Nonetheless, full dogmatic articulations of the canon were not made until the [[Canon of Trent]] of 1546 for [[Roman Catholicism]], the [[Thirty-Nine Articles]] of 1563 for the [[Church of England]], the [[Westminster Confession of Faith]] of 1647 for [[Calvinism]], and the [[Synod of Jerusalem]] of 1672 for the [[Greek Orthodox]].

On the question of NT Canon formation generally, New Testament scholar Lee Martin McDonald has written that:<ref>McDonald, Lee M. (1995). ''The Formation of the Christian Biblical Canon''. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson. p. 116.</ref>
{{quote|
Although a number of Christians have thought that [[church council]]s determined what books were to be included in the biblical canons, a more accurate reflection of the matter is that the councils recognized or acknowledged those books that had already obtained prominence from usage among the various early Christian communities.}}

Christian scholars assert that when these bishops and councils spoke on the matter, they were not defining something new, but instead "were ratifying what had already become the mind of the Church".<ref name="Metzger 1987 237–238"/><ref name="Bruce" />

Some synods of the 4th century published lists of canonical books (e.g. [[Synod of Hippo|Hippo]] and [[Council of Carthage|Carthage]]). The existing 27-book canon of the New Testament was reconfirmed (for [[Roman Catholicism]]) in the 16th century with the [[Council of Trent]] (also called the Tridentine Council) of 1546,<ref>{{harvp|Metzger|1987|p=246}} "Finally on 8 April 1546, by a vote of 24 to 15, with 16 abstensions, the Council issued a decree (''De Canonicis Scripturis'') in which, for the first time in the history of the church, the question of the contents of the Bible was made an absolute article of faith and confirmed by an anathema."</ref> the [[Thirty-Nine Articles]] of 1563 for the [[Church of England]], the [[Westminster Confession of Faith]] of 1647 for [[Calvinism]], and the [[Synod of Jerusalem]] of 1672 for [[Eastern Orthodoxy]]. Although these councils did include statements about the canon, when it came to the New Testament they were only reaffirming the existing canon, including the [[Antilegomena]].

According to the ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' article on the Canon of the New Testament: "The idea of a complete and clear-cut canon of the New Testament existing from the beginning, that is from Apostolic times, has no foundation in history. The Canon of the New Testament, like that of the Old, is the result of a development, of a process at once stimulated by disputes with doubters, both within and without the Church, and retarded by certain obscurities and natural hesitations, and which did not reach its final term until the dogmatic definition of the [[Council of Trent|Tridentine Council]]."<ref>{{cite book |last=Reid |first=George |year=1908 |chapter-url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03274a.htm |chapter=Canon of the New Testament |title=The Catholic Encyclopedia |location=New York |publisher=Robert Appleton Company}}</ref>

In 331, [[Constantine I and Christianity|Constantine I]] commissioned Eusebius to deliver [[Fifty Bibles of Constantine|fifty Bibles]] for the [[Church of Constantinople]]. [[Athanasius]] (''Apol. Const. 4'') recorded Alexandrian scribes around 340 preparing Bibles for [[Constans]]. Little else is known, though there is plenty of speculation. For example, it is speculated that this may have provided motivation for canon lists, and that [[Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209|Codex Vaticanus]] and [[Codex Sinaiticus]] may be examples of these Bibles. Together with the [[Peshitta]] and [[Codex Alexandrinus]], these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles.<ref>{{harvp|McDonald|Sanders|2002|pp=414–415}}</ref> There is no evidence among the [[First Council of Nicaea#The biblical canon|canons of the First Council of Nicaea of any determination on the canon]].

==Early manuscripts==
[[File:Papyrus Bodmer VIII.jpg|thumb|Papyrus Bodmer VIII, at the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, showing 1 and 2 Peter.]]
[[File:Codex Regius (019).JPG|thumb|The [[Codex Regius (New Testament)|Codex Regius (L or '''019''')]], an 8th-century Greek manuscript of the New Testament with strong affinities to [[Codex Vaticanus]].]]
{{Main article|New Testament manuscripts}}

Like other literature from [[classical antiquity|antiquity]], the text of the New Testament was (prior to the advent of the [[printing press]]) preserved and transmitted in [[manuscripts]]. Manuscripts containing at least a part of the New Testament number in the thousands. The earliest of these (like manuscripts containing other literature) are often very fragmentarily preserved. Some of these fragments have even been thought to date as early as the 2nd century (i.e., [[Papyrus 90]], [[Papyrus 98]], [[Papyrus 104]], and famously [[Rylands Library Papyrus P52]], though the early date of the latter has recently been called into question).<ref>For the initial dating of P52, see Roberts, C. H. (ed.) (1935). ''An Unpublished Fragment of the Fourth Gospel in the John Rylands Library''. Manchester: Manchester University Press; and Bell, H. Idris; Skeat, T. C. (1935). ''Fragments of an Unknown Gospel and Other Early Christian Papyri''. London: Trustees of the British Museum. Though see now Nongbri, Brent (2005). "The Use and Abuse of P52: Papyrological Pitfalls in the Dating of the Fourth Gospel". ''Harvard Theological Review'' '''98''': 23–52; and Martinez, David G. (2009). "The Papyri and Early Christianity". In Bagnall, Roger S. (ed.). ''The Oxford Handbook of Papyrology''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 590–623.</ref>

For each subsequent century, more and more manuscripts survive that contain a portion or all of the books that were held to be part of the New Testament at that time (for example, the New Testament of the 4th-century [[Codex Sinaiticus]], once a complete Bible, contains the [[Epistle of Barnabas]] and the [[Shepherd of Hermas]]), though occasionally these manuscripts contain other works as well (e.g., [[Papyrus 72]] and the Crosby-Schøyen Codex). The date when a manuscript was written, however, does not necessarily reflect the date of the form of text it contains. That is, later manuscripts can, and occasionally do, contain older forms of text or older readings.

Some of the more important manuscripts containing an early text of books of the New Testament are:

*The [[Chester Beatty Papyri]] (Greek; the New Testament portions of which were copied in the 3rd century)
*The [[Bodmer Papyri]] (Greek and Coptic; the New Testament portions of which were copied in the 3rd and 4th centuries)
*[[Codex Bobiensis]] (Latin; copied in the 4th century, but containing at least a 3rd-century form of text)
*[[Uncial 0171|Uncial '''0171''']] (Greek; copied in the late-third or early 4th century)
*[[Syriac Sinaiticus]] (Syriac; copied in the 4th century)
*[[Schoyen Collection|Schøyen Manuscript]] 2560 (Coptic; copied in the 4th century)
*[[Codex Vaticanus]] (Greek; copied in the 4th century)
*[[Codex Sinaiticus]] (Greek; copied in the 4th century)
*[[Codex Vercellensis]] (Latin; copied in the 4th century)
*[[Curetonian Gospels]] (Syriac; copied in the 5th century)
*[[Garima Gospels]] ( [[Ge'ez language]], produced in the 5th through 6th century)

==Textual variation==
{{Main article|Textual variants in the New Testament|Textual criticism of the New Testament}}
[[Textual criticism]] deals with the identification and removal of [[Transcription (linguistics)|transcription]] errors in the [[Writing|texts]] of [[manuscripts]]. Ancient [[scribes]] made errors or alterations (such as including non-authentic [[Interpolation (manuscripts)|additions]]).<ref>{{harvp|Ehrman|2005|p=46}}</ref> The New Testament has been preserved in more than 5,800 [[Greek language|Greek]] manuscripts, 10,000 [[Latin]] manuscripts and 9,300 manuscripts in various other ancient languages including [[Syriac language|Syriac]], [[Slavic languages|Slavic]], [[Ethiopic]] and [[Armenian language|Armenian]]. Even if the [[Greek New Testament|original Greek]] versions were lost, the entire New Testament could still be assembled from the translations.<ref name="Strobel, Lee 1998">Strobel, Lee (1998). ''The Case for Christ''. Chapter Three, when quoting biblical scholar [[Bruce Metzger]].</ref>

In addition, there are so many quotes from the New Testament in early church documents and commentaries that the entire New Testament could also be assembled from these alone.<ref name="Strobel, Lee 1998"/> Not all biblical manuscripts come from orthodox Christian writers. For example, the [[Gnostic]] writings of [[Valentinus (Gnostic)|Valentinus]] come from the 2nd century AD, and these Christians were regarded as heretics by the mainstream church.<ref name="Bruce, F.F. 1981 P 14">{{cite book |last=Bruce |first=F.F. |year=1981 |title=The New Testament Documents: Are They Reliable? |publisher=InterVarsity Press |page=14 |ref=harv}}</ref> The sheer number of witnesses presents unique difficulties, but it also gives scholars a better idea of how close modern Bibles are to the original versions.<ref name="Bruce, F.F. 1981 P 14"/>

On noting the large number of surviving ancient manuscripts, [[Bruce Metzger]] sums up the view on the issue by saying "The more often you have copies that agree with each other, especially if they emerge from different geographical areas, the more you can cross-check them to figure out what the original document was like. The only way they'd agree would be where they went back genealogically in a family tree that represents the descent of the manuscripts.<ref name="Strobel, Lee 1998"/>

===Interpolations===
In attempting to determine the original text of the New Testament books, some modern textual critics have identified sections as additions of material, centuries after the gospel was written. These are called [[Interpolation (manuscripts)|interpolations]]. In modern translations of the Bible, the results of textual criticism have led to certain verses, words and phrases being left out or marked as not original. According to [[Bart D. Ehrman]], "These scribal additions are often found in late medieval manuscripts of the New Testament, but not in the manuscripts of the earlier centuries."<ref name=autogenerated1>{{cite book |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |authorlink=Bart D. Ehrman |year=2005 |title=Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why |titlelink=Misquoting Jesus |publisher=HarperCollins |page=265 |isbn=978-0-06-073817-4 |ref=harv}}</ref>

Most modern Bibles have footnotes to indicate passages that have disputed source documents. Bible Commentaries also discuss these, sometimes in great detail. While many variations have been discovered between early copies of biblical texts, almost all have no importance, as they are variations in spelling, punctuation, or grammar. Also, many of these variants are so particular to the Greek language that they would not appear in translations into other languages. For example, order of words (i.e. "man bites dog" versus "dog bites man") often does not matter in Greek, so textual variants that flip the order of words often have no consequences.<ref name="Strobel, Lee 1998"/>

Outside of these unimportant variants, there are a couple variants of some importance. The two most commonly cited examples are the [[Mark 16|last verses]] of the ''Gospel of Mark''<ref>Nave, Guy D. ''The Role and Function of Repentance in Luke-Acts''. p. 194.</ref><ref>Spong, John Shelby (26 September 1979). [https://web.archive.org/web/20110604055133/http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=1256 "The Continuing Christian Need for Judaism"]. ''Christian Century''. p. 918. Archived from [http://www.religion-online.org/showarticle.asp?title=1256 the original] on 4 June 2011.</ref><ref>Levine, Amy-Jill; Blickenstaff, Marianne (2001). ''A Feminist Companion to John, Vol. II''. Feminist Companion to the New Testament and Early Christian Writings, Vol. 5. A&C Black. pg. 175.</ref> and the story of the [[Pericope Adulterae|adulterous woman]] in the ''Gospel of John''.<ref>{{cite web | title = NETBible: John 7 | publisher = Bible.org | url = https://net.bible.org/#!bible/John+7 | accessdate =17 October 2009}} See note 139 on that page.</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last = Keith | first = Chris | title = Recent and Previous Research on the ''Pericope Adulterae'' (John 7.53—8.11) | journal = [[Currents in Biblical Research]] | volume = 6 | issue = 3 | pages = 377–404 | year = 2008 | doi = 10.1177/1476993X07084793}}</ref><ref name="Oxford">"Pericope adulterae". In Cross, F. L. (ed.) (2005). ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church''. New York: Oxford University Press.</ref> Many scholars and critics also believe that the [[Comma Johanneum]] reference supporting the [[Trinity]] doctrine in [[1 John]] to have been a later addition.<ref>Ehrman (2006), p. 166.{{full citation needed|date=May 2016}}</ref><ref name="Metzger1994">{{cite book |last=Metzger |first=Bruce |authorlink=Bruce Metzger |year=1994 |title=A Textual Commentary on the New Testament |edition=2nd |publisher=German Bible Society |ref=harv}}</ref> According to [[Norman Geisler]] and William Nix, "The New Testament, then, has not only survived in more manuscripts than any other book from antiquity, but it has survived in a purer form than any other great book—a form that is 99.5% pure"<ref>{{harvp|Metzger|1994|p=367}}</ref>

[[File:RossanoGospelsChristBeforePilate.jpg|thumb|The [[Rossano Gospels]], 6th century, a representative of [[Byzantine]] text.]]

The often referred to Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible, a book written to prove the validity of the New Testament, says: " A study of 150 Greek [manuscripts] of the Gospel of Luke has revealed more than 30,000 different readings... It is safe to say that there is not one sentence in the New Testament in which the [manuscript] is wholly uniform."<ref>Parvis, M. M. Vol. 4. pp. 594–595.{{full citation needed|date=May 2016}}</ref> Most of the variation took place within the first three Christian centuries.

===Text-types===
By the 4th century, textual "families" or types of text become discernible among [[biblical manuscript|New Testament manuscripts]]. A "text-type" is the name given to a family of texts with similar readings due to common ancestors and mutual correction. Many early manuscripts, however, contain individual readings from several different earlier forms of text. Modern texual critics have identified the following text-types among textual witnesses to the New Testament: The [[Alexandrian text-type]] is usually considered to generally preserve many early readings. It is represented, e.g., by [[Codex Vaticanus Graecus 1209|Codex Vaticanus]], [[Codex Sinaiticus]] and the [[Bodmer Papyri]].

The [[Western text-type]] is generally longer and can be paraphrastic, but can also preserve early readings. The [[Acts of the Apostles#Manuscripts|Western version of the Acts of the Apostles]] is, notably, 8.5% longer than the Alexandrian form of the text. Examples of the Western text are found in [[Codex Bezae]], [[Codex Claromontanus]], [[Codex Washingtonianus]], the [[Vetus Latina|Old Latin]] (i.e., Latin translations made prior to the [[Vulgate]]), as well as in quotations by [[Marcion]], [[Tatian]], [[Irenaeus]], [[Tertullian]] and [[Cyprian]].

A text-type referred to as the "[[Caesarean text-type]]" and thought to have included witnesses such as [[Codex Koridethi]] and minuscule 565, can today be described neither as "Caesarean" nor as a text-type as was previously thought. However, the Gospel of Mark in [[Papyrus 45]], [[Codex Washingtonianus]] and in [[Family 13]] does indeed reflect a distinct type of text.

Increasing standardization of distinct (and once local) text-types eventually gave rise to the [[Byzantine text-type]]. Since most manuscripts of the New Testament do not derive from the first several centuries, that is, they were copied after the rise of the Byzantine text-type, this form of text is found the majority of extant manuscripts and is therefore often called the "Majority Text." As with all of the other (earlier) text-types, the Byzantine can also occasionally preserve early readings.

===Biblical criticism===
{{Main article|Biblical criticism}}
[[Biblical criticism]] is the scholarly "study and investigation of [[Biblical manuscript|biblical writings]] that seeks to make discerning judgments about these writings." Viewing biblical texts as having human rather than supernatural origins, it asks when and where a particular text originated; how, why, by whom, for whom, and in what circumstances it was produced; what influences were at work in its production; what sources were used in its composition; and what message it was intended to convey.

It will vary slightly depending on whether the focus is on the [[Old Testament]], the letters of the New Testament, or the [[Canonical Gospels]]. It also plays an important role in the quest for the [[historical Jesus]]. It also addresses the physical text, including the meaning of the words and the way in which they are used, its preservation, history, and integrity. Biblical criticism draws upon a wide range of scholarly disciplines including [[archaeology]], [[anthropology]], [[folklore]], [[linguistics]], [[Christian Oral Tradition|Oral Tradition studies]], history, and [[religious studies]].

===Establishing a critical text===
{{Main article|New Testament manuscripts}}
The [[#Textual variation|textual variation]] among manuscript copies of books in the New Testament prompted attempts to discern the earliest form of text already in antiquity (e.g., by the 3rd-century Christian author [[Origen]]). The efforts began in earnest again during the [[Renaissance]], which saw a revival of the study of ancient Greek texts. During this period, modern [[textual criticism]] was born. In this context, [[Christian humanism|Christian humanists]] such as [[Lorenzo Valla]] and [[Erasmus]] promoted a return to the original Greek of the New Testament. This was the beginning of modern [[New Testament textual criticism]], which over subsequent centuries would increasingly incorporate more and more manuscripts, in more languages (i.e., versions of the New Testament), as well as citations of the New Testament by ancient authors and the New Testament text in [[lectionary|lectionaries]] in order to reconstruct the earliest recoverable form of the New Testament text and the history of changes to it.<ref>[[Bruce M. Metzger|Metzger, Bruce M.]]; [[Bart D. Ehrman|Ehrman, Bart D.]] (2005). ''The Text of the New Testament: Its Transmission, Corruption, and Restoration''. 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</ref>

==Relationship to earlier and contemporaneous literature==
{{Further information|Non-canonical books referenced in the Bible}}
Books that later formed the New Testament, like other Christian literature of the period, originated in a literary context that reveals relationships not only to other Christian writings, but also to [[Classics|Graeco-Roman]] and [[Judaism#Antiquity|Jewish]] works. Of singular importance is the extensive use of and interaction with the [[Tanakh|Jewish Bible]] and what would become the [[Old Testament|Christian Old Testament]]. Both implicit and explicit citations, as well as countless allusions, appear throughout the books of the New Testament, from the Gospels and Acts, to the Epistles, to the Apocalypse.<ref>See, e.g., Stendahl, Krister (1954). ''The School of St. Matthew and Its Use of the Old Testament''. Uppsala and Lund; Marcus, Joel (1993). ''The Way of the Lord: Christological Exegesis of the Old Testament in the Gospel of Mark''. Edinburgh; Smith, D. Moody (1972). "The Use of the Old Testament in the New". In ''The Use of the Old Testament in the New and Other Essays: Studies in Honor of William Franklin Stinespring''. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press. pp. 3–65; [[Donald Juel|Juel, Donald]] (1988). ''Messianic Exegesis: Christological Interpretation of the Old Testament in Early Christianity''. Philadelphia: Fortress; and Barr, James (1966). ''Old and New in Interpretation: A Study of the Two Testaments''. London: SCM.</ref>

==Early versions==
The first translations (usually called "versions") of the New Testament were made beginning already at the end of 2nd century. The earliest versions of the New Testament are the translations into the [[Syriac language|Syriac]], [[Latin]], and [[Coptic language|Coptic]] languages.<ref>[[Arthur Võõbus|Võõbus, Arthur]] (1954). ''Early Versions of the New Testament''. Stockholm. pp. 1–128, 211–240.</ref> These three versions were made directly from the Greek, and are frequently cited in the apparatuses of modern critical editions.

===Syriac===
{{Main article|Syriac versions of the Bible}}
[[File:RabulaGospelsFolio04vCanonTable.jpg|thumb|The [[Rabbula Gospels]], [[Eusebian Canons]].]]
Syriac was spoken in [[Syria]], and [[Mesopotamia]], and with dialect in [[Syria Palaestina|Roman]] and [[Palaestina Secunda|Byzantine Palestine]] where it was known as [[Jewish Palestinian Aramaic]]. Several Syriac translations were made and have come to us. Most of the Old Syriac, however, as well as the Philoxonian version have been lost.

[[Tatian]], the Assyrian, created the [[Diatessaron]], a [[gospel harmony]] written in Syriac around 170 AD and the earliest form of the gospel not only in Syriac but probably also in Armenian.

In the 19th century, manuscript evidence was discovered for an "Old Syriac" version of the four distinct (i.e., not harmonized) gospels. These "separated" (Syriac: ''da-Mepharreshe'') gospels, though old, have been shown to be later than the Diatessaron. The Old Syriac gospels are fragmentarily preserved in two manuscripts: the 5th-century [[Curetonian Gospels|Curetonian Syriac]] and the [[Syriac Sinaiticus|Sinaitic Syriac]] from the 4th or 5th century.

No Old Syriac manuscripts of other portions of the New Testament survive, though Old Syriac readings, e.g. from the [[Pauline Epistles]], can be discerned in citations made by Eastern fathers and in later Syriac versions. The Old Syriac version is a representative of the [[Western text-type]]. The [[Peshitta]] version was prepared in the beginning of the 5th century. It contains only 22 books (neither the [[General epistles|Minor Catholic Epistles]] of 2 Peter, 2 and 3 John, and Jude, nor the [[Book of Revelation]] were part of this translation).

The [[Philoxenian]] probably was produced in 508 for [[Philoxenus, Bishop of Mabung]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Metzger |first=Bruce M. |authorlink=Bruce M. Metzger |year=1977 |title=The Early Versions of the New Testament |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press |pages=3–98 |ref=harv}}</ref>

===Latin===
{{Main article|Vetus Latina|Vulgate}}
The Gospels were likely translated into Latin as early as the last quarter of the 2nd century in North Africa (''Afra''). Not much later, there were also European Latin translations (''Itala''). There are about 80 Old Latin mansucripts. The [[Vetus Latina]] ("Old Latin") versions often contain readings with a Western type of text. (For the avoidance of confusion, these texts were written in [[Late Latin]], not the early version of the Latin language known as [[Old Latin]], pre 75 BC.)

The bewildering diversity of the Old Latin versions prompted [[Jerome]] to prepare another translation into Latin — the [[Vulgate]]. In many respects it was merely a revision of the Old Latin. There are currently around 8,000 manuscripts of the Vulgate.

===Coptic===
{{Main article|Coptic versions of the Bible}}
There are several dialects of the Coptic language: [[Bohairic]] (northern dialect), [[Fayyumic]], [[Sahidic]] (southern dialect), [[Akhmimic]], and others. The first translation was made by at least the 3rd century into the Sahidic dialect (copsa). This translation represents a mixed text, mostly [[Alexandrian text-type|Alexandrian]], though also with [[Western text-type|Western]] readings.<ref>{{cite book |last=Vööbus |first=Arthur |year=1954 |title=Early Versions of the New Testament |location=Stockholm |pages=216–229 |ref=harv}}</ref>

A Bohairic translation was made later, but existed already in the 4th century. Though the translation makes less use of Greek words than the Sahidic, it does employ some Greek grammar (e.g., in word-order and the use of particles such as the syntactic construction μεν — δε). For this reason, the Bohairic translation can be helpful in the reconstruction of the early Greek text of the New Testament.<ref>{{harvp|Vööbus|1954|pp=229–237}}; {{harvp|Metzger|1977|pp=99–152}}</ref>

===Other ancient translations===
[[File:Matthew's Gospel - British Library Add. MS 59874 Ethiopian Bible.jpg|thumb|BL Add. MS 59874 with [[Ethiopic]] [[Gospel of Matthew]].]]
The continued spread of Christianity, and the foundation of national churches, led to the translation of the Bible—often beginning with books from the New Testament—into a variety of other languages at a relatively early date: [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Ethiopic]], [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Soghdian]], and eventually [[Gothic language|Gothic]], [[Church Slavonic language|Old Church Slavonic]], [[Arabic]], and [[Nubian languages|Nubian]].<ref>On the Armenian, Georgian, Ethiopic, Arabic, and Gothic, see {{harvp|Vööbus|1954|loc=pp. 133–210, 243–309}}</ref>

==Modern translations==
{{Main article|Bible translations}}
[[Modern Literal Version]] is the most recent literal translation of the books of the new testament, with the largest number of translation experts being involved in the final translation.

Historically, throughout the [[Christendom|Christian world]] and in the context of [[Mission (Christian)|Christian missionary activity]], the New Testament (or portions thereof) has been that part of the Christian Bible first translated into the [[vernacular]]. The production of such translations grew out of the insertion of [[vernacular]] [[gloss (annotation)|glosses]] in biblical texts, as well as out of the production of [[biblical paraphrase]]s and poetic renditions of stories from the life of Christ (e.g., the [[Heliand]]).

The 16th century saw the rise of [[Protestantism]] and an explosion of translations of the New (and Old) Testament into the [[vernacular]]. Notable are those of [[Luther Bible|Martin Luther]] (1522), [[Jacques Lefèvre d'Étaples]] (1523), the [[Zürich Bible|Froschau Bible]] (1525–1529, revised in 1574), [[Tyndale Bible|William Tyndale]] (1526, revised in 1534, 1535 and 1536), the [[Brest Bible]] (1563), and the [[Authorized King James Version|Authorized Version]] (also called the "King James Version") (1611).

Most of these translations relied (though not always exclusively) upon one of the printed editions of the Greek New Testament edited by [[Erasmus]], a form of this Greek text emerged as the standard and is known as the [[Textus Receptus]]. This text, based on the majority of manuscripts is also used in the majority of translations that were made in the years 100 to 400 AD.

Translations of the New Testament made since the appearance of critical editions of the Greek text (notably those of [[Constantin von Tischendorf|Tischendorf]], [[The New Testament in the Original Greek|Westcott and Hort]], and [[Von Soden catalogue|von Soden]]) have largely used them as their [[Source text|base text]]. Unlike the [[Textus Receptus]], these have a pronounced Alexandrian character. Standard critical editions are those of [[Alexander Souter|Souter]], Vogels, Bover, Merk, and [[Novum Testamentum Graece|Nestlé-Aland]] (the text, though not the full critical apparatus of which is reproduced in the [[United Bible Societies]]' "Greek New Testament").

Notable translations of the New Testament based on these most recent critical editions include the [[Revised Standard Version]] (1946, revised in 1971), [[:fr:La Bible de Jérusalem|La Bible de Jérusalem]] (1961, revised in 1973 and 2000), the [[Einheitsübersetzung]] (1970, final edition 1979), the [[New American Bible]] (1970, revised in 1986), the [[Traduction Oecuménique de la Bible]] (1988, revised in 2004), and the [[New Revised Standard Version]] (1989).

==Theological interpretation in Christian churches==
{{Main article|Biblical authority}}
Though all Christian churches accept the New Testament as Scripture, they differ in their understanding of the nature, extent, and relevance of its authority. Views of the authoritativeness of the New Testament often depend on the concept of ''[[Biblical inspiration|inspiration]]'', which relates to the role of God in the formation of the New Testament. Generally, the greater the role of God in one's doctrine of inspiration, the more one accepts the [[doctrine]] of [[biblical inerrancy]] or authoritativeness of the Bible. One possible source of confusion is that these terms are difficult to define, because many people use them interchangeably or with very different meanings. This article will use the terms in the following manner:
*''Infallibility'' relates to the absolute correctness of the Bible in matters of doctrine.
*''Inerrancy'' relates to the absolute correctness of the Bible in factual assertions (including historical and scientific assertions).
*''Authoritativeness'' relates to the correctness of the Bible in questions of practice in morality.

{{Quotation|The self-witness of the Bible to its inspiration demands a commitment to its unity. The ultimate basis for unity is contained in the claim of divine inspiration in {{Bibleref2|2tim|3:16||2 Timothy 3:16}} that "all Scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness" (KJV). The term "inspiration" renders the Greek word ''theopneustos''. This term only occurs here in the New Testament and literally means "God-breathed" (the chosen translation of the NIV).<ref name=Elwell>Meadors, Gary T. (1997). [http://www.biblestudytools.com/dictionaries/bakers-evangelical-dictionary/scripture-unity-and-diversity-of.html "Scripture, Unity and Diversity of"]. In Elwell, Walter A. (ed.). ''Baker's Evangelical Dictionary of Biblical Theology.'' Grand Rapids: Baker Books.</ref> }}

All of these concepts depend for their meaning on the supposition that the text of Bible has been properly interpreted, with consideration for the intention of the text, whether [[literal and figurative language|literal]] history, [[allegory]] or poetry, etc. Especially the doctrine of inerrancy is variously understood according to the weight given by the interpreter to scientific investigations of the world.

===Unity in diversity===
The notion of unity in diversity of Scripture claims that the Bible presents a noncontradictory and consistent message concerning God and redemptive history. The fact of diversity is observed in comparing the diversity of time, culture, authors' perspectives, literary genre, and the theological themes.<ref name=Elwell/>

Studies from many theologians considering the "unity in diversity" to be found in the New Testament (and the Bible as a whole) have been collected and summarized by New Testament theologian [[Frank Stagg (theologian)|Frank Stagg]]. He describes them as some basic presuppositions, tenets, and concerns common among the New Testament writers, giving to the New Testament its "unity in diversity":
#The reality of God is never argued but is always assumed and affirmed
#Jesus Christ is absolutely central: he is Lord and Savior, the foretold Prophet, the Messianic King, the Chosen, the way, the truth, and the light, the One through whom God the Father not only acted but through whom He came
#The Holy Spirit came anew with Jesus Christ.
#The Christian faith and life are a calling, rooted in divine election.
#The plight of everyone as sinner means that each person is completely dependent upon the mercy and grace of God
#Salvation is both God's gift and his demand through Jesus Christ, to be received by faith
#The death and resurrection of Jesus are at the heart of the total event of which he was the center
#God creates a people of his own, designated and described by varied terminology and analogies
#History must be understood eschatologically, being brought along toward its ultimate goal when the kingdom of God, already present in Christ, is brought to its complete triumph
#In Christ, all of God's work of creation, revelation, and redemption is brought to fulfillment<ref name=Stagg>Stagg, Frank (1962). ''New Testament Theology''. Broadman. {{ISBN|0-8054-1613-7}}.</ref>

===Roman Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, and Classical Anglicanism===
For the [[Roman Catholic Church]], there are two modes of Revelation: Scripture and [[Apostolic Tradition|Tradition]]. Both of them are interpreted by the teachings of the Church. The Roman Catholic view is expressed clearly in the [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] (1997):
<blockquote>
§ 82: As a result the Church, to whom the transmission and interpretation of Revelation is entrusted, does not derive her certainty about all revealed truths from the holy Scriptures alone. Both Scripture and Tradition must be accepted and honoured with equal sentiments of devotion and reverence.
 
§ 107: The inspired books teach the truth. Since therefore all that the inspired authors or sacred writers affirm should be regarded as affirmed by the Holy Spirit, we must acknowledge that the books of Scripture firmly, faithfully, and without error teach that truth which God, for the sake of our salvation, wished to see confided to the Sacred Scriptures.
</blockquote>In Catholic terminology the teaching office is called the [[Magisterium]]. The Catholic view should not be confused with the two-source theory. As the Catechism states in §§ 80 and 81, Revelation has "one common source ... two distinct modes of transmission."<ref>[http://www.scborromeo.org/ccc/p1s1c2a2.htm "The Transmission of Divine Revelation"]. ''Catechism of the Catholic Church''. 2nd ed. 1997.</ref>

While many [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] writers distinguish between Scripture and Tradition, Bishop Kallistos Ware says that for the Orthodox there is only one source of the Christian faith, Holy Tradition, within which Scripture exists.<ref>Ware, Kallistos (1993). [https://books.google.com/books?id=Q2Z8bVDVMLEC&pg=PT243 "Holy Tradition: The Source of the Orthodox Faith"].''The Orthodox Church''. Penguin UK.</ref>

Traditional [[Anglican Communion|Anglicans]] believe that "Holy Scripture containeth all things necessary to salvation", (Article VI), but also that the Catholic Creeds "ought thoroughly to be received and believed" (Article VIII), and that the Church "hath authority in Controversies of Faith" and is "a witness and keeper of Holy Writ" (Article XX).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://anglicansonline.org/basics/thirty-nine_articles.html |title=Articles of Religion |publisher=Anglicans Online |accessdate=19 November 2010}}</ref> Classical Anglicanism, therefore, like Orthodoxy, holds that Holy Tradition is the only safe guardian against perversion and innovation in the interpretation of Scripture.

In the famous words of Thomas Ken, Bishop of Bath and Wells: "As for my religion, I dye in the holy catholic and apostolic faith professed by the whole Church before the disunion of East and West, more particularly in the communion of the Church of England, as it stands distinguished from all Papal and Puritan innovations, and as it adheres to the doctrine of the Cross."

===Protestantism===
Following the doctrine of [[sola scriptura]], Protestants believe that their traditions of faith, practice and interpretations carry forward what the scriptures teach, and so tradition is not a source of authority in itself. Their traditions derive authority from the Bible, and are therefore always open to reëvaluation. This openness to doctrinal revision has extended in [[Liberal Christianity|Liberal]] Protestant traditions even to the reevaluation of the doctrine of Scripture upon which the Reformation was founded, and members of these traditions may even question whether the Bible is infallible in doctrine, inerrant in historical and other factual statements, and whether it has uniquely divine authority. However, the adjustments made by modern [[Protestantism|Protestants]] to their doctrine of scripture vary widely.

====American evangelical and fundamentalist Protestantism====
Within the US, the [[Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy]] (1978) is a statement, articulating evangelical views on this issue. Paragraph four of its summary states: "Being wholly and verbally God-given, Scripture is without error or fault in all its teaching, no less in what it states about God's acts in creation, about the events of world history, and about its own literary origins under God, than in its witness to God's saving grace in individual lives."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.reformed.org/documents/index.html?mainframe=http://www.reformed.org/documents/icbi.html |title=The Chicago Statement of Biblical Inerrancy |publisher=Center for Reformed Theology and Apologetics |accessdate=19 November 2010}}</ref>

====American mainline and liberal Protestantism====
[[Mainline (Protestant)|Mainline]] American [[Protestant]] denominations, including the [[United Methodist Church]], [[Presbyterian Church USA]], [[Episcopal Church in the United States of America|The Episcopal Church]], and [[Evangelical Lutheran Church in America]], do not teach the doctrine of inerrancy as set forth in the Chicago Statement. All of these churches have more ancient doctrinal statements asserting the authority of scripture, but may interpret these statements in such a way as to allow for a very broad range of teaching—from evangelicalism to skepticism. It is not an impediment to ordination in these denominations to teach that the scriptures contain errors, or that the authors follow a more or less unenlightened ethics that, however appropriate it may have seemed in the authors' time, moderns would be very wrong to follow blindly.

For example, [[ordination of women]] is universally accepted in the mainline churches, [[abortion]] is condemned as a grievous social tragedy but not always a personal [[sin]] or a crime against an unborn person, and [[homosexuality]] is sometimes recognized as a genetic propensity or morally neutral preference that should be neither encouraged nor condemned. In North America, the most contentious of these issues among these churches at the present time is how far the ordination of gay men and lesbians should be accepted.

Officials of the Presbyterian Church USA report: "We acknowledge the role of scriptural authority in the Presbyterian Church, but Presbyterians generally do not believe in biblical inerrancy. Presbyterians do not insist that every detail of chronology or sequence or prescientific description in scripture be true in literal form. Our confessions do teach biblical infallibility. Infallibility affirms the entire truthfulness of scripture without depending on every exact detail."<ref>"Homosexual ordination vote widens gap between Presbyterian factions". ''ReligionToday''. 20 June 2001.</ref>

Those who hold a more liberal view of the Bible as a human witness to the glory of God, the work of fallible humans who wrote from a limited experience unusual only for the insight they have gained through their inspired struggle to know God in the midst of a troubled world. Therefore, they tend not to accept such doctrines as inerrancy. These churches also tend to retain the social activism of their evangelical forebears of the 19th century, placing particular emphasis on those teachings of scripture that teach compassion for the poor and concern for [[social justice]].

The message of personal [[salvation]] is, generally speaking, of the good that comes to oneself and the world through following the New Testament's [[ethic of reciprocity|Golden Rule]] admonition to love others without hypocrisy or prejudice. Toward these ends, the "spirit" of the New Testament, more than the letter, is infallible and authoritative.

There are some movements that believe the Bible contains the teachings of Jesus but who reject the churches that were formed following its publication. These people believe all individuals can communicate directly with God and therefore do not need guidance or doctrines from a church. These people are known as [[Christian anarchism|Christian anarchists]].

===Messianic Judaism===
[[Messianic Judaism]] generally holds the same view of New Testament authority as evangelical Protestants.<ref name = "Beit Simcha">{{cite web
| url = http://www.beitsimcha.org/our-beliefs/
| title = Our Beliefs
| publisher = Beit Simcha
| accessdate = June 7, 2012
| quote = To study the whole and authoritative Word of God, including the Tenach (Hebrew Scriptures) and the B'rit Chadasha (New Covenant) under the leading of the Holy Spirit.
}}
</ref> According to the view of some Messianic Jewish congregations, Jesus did not annul the Torah, but that its interpretation is revised and ultimately explained through the Apostolic Scriptures.<ref name="KehilatTNuvahSOF1">{{cite web
|url = http://www.graftedin.com/essential-statement-of-faith/
|title = Essential Statement of Faith
|accessdate = June 7, 2012
|publisher = The Harvest: A Messianic Charismatic Congregation
|quote = We believe that the Torah (five books of Moses) is a comprehensive summary of God's foundational laws and ways, as found in both the Tanakh and Apostolic Scriptures. Additionally, the Bible teaches that without holiness no man can see God. We believe in the Doctrine of Sanctification as a definite, yet progressive work of grace, commencing at the time of regeneration and continuing until the consummation of salvation. Therefore we encourage all believers, both Jews and Gentiles, to affirm, embrace, and practice these foundational laws and ways as clarified through the teachings of Messiah Yeshua.
|deadurl = yes
|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20151127195443/http://www.graftedin.com/essential-statement-of-faith/
|archivedate = 27 November 2015
|df = dmy-all
}}</ref>

===Jehovah's Witnesses===
The [[Jehovah's Witnesses|Christian Congregation of Jehovah's Witnesses]] accepts the New Testament as divinely inspired Scripture, and as infallible in every detail, with equal authority as the Hebrew Scriptures. They view it as the written revelation and good news of the [[Messiah]], the [[Atonement in Christianity|ransom sacrifice of Jesus]], and the [[Kingdom of God]], explaining and expounding the Hebrew Bible, not replacing but vitally supplementing it. They also view the New Testament as the primary instruction guide for Christian living, and [[church discipline]]. They generally call the New Testament the "Christian Greek Scriptures", and see only the "covenants" as "old" or "new", but not any part of the actual Scriptures themselves.<ref>"Equipped For Every Good Work". Brooklyn, New York: Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, Inc. International Bible Students Association. 1946. pp. 12–13.</ref>

===United Pentecostals===
[[Oneness Pentecostalism]] subscribes to the common Protestant doctrine of ''[[sola scriptura]]''. They view the Bible as the [[Biblical inspiration|inspired]] Word of God, and as absolutely [[Biblical inerrancy|inerrant]] in its contents (though not necessarily in every translation).<ref>See, for example, {{cite web |last=Raddatz |first=Tom |url=http://www.1lord1faith.org/wm/Oneness/1TrinDebate.htm |title=A Response to the Oneness-Trinity Debate |publisher=1Lord1Faith.org |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050320000616/http://www.1lord1faith.org/wm/Oneness/1TrinDebate.htm |archivedate=20 March 2005}}</ref><ref>Dulle, Jason. [http://www.onenesspentecostal.com/howgetbible.htm "How We Get Our Bible"]. Institute for Biblical Studies. Retrieved 15 April 2013.</ref> They regard the New Testament as perfect and inerrant in every way, revealing the Lord Jesus Christ in the Flesh, and his Atonement, and which also explains and illuminates the Old Testament perfectly, and is part of the Bible canon, not because church councils or decrees claimed it so, but by witness of the Holy Spirit.<ref>Dulle, Jason. [http://www.onenesspentecostal.com/inerrancycanon.htm "Defending the Inerrancy and Canon of Scripture"]. Institute for Biblical Studies. Retrieved 15 April 2013.</ref><ref>Dulle, Jason. [http://www.onenesspentecostal.com/inspiration.htm "The Nature of Inspiration"]. Institute for Biblical Studies. Retrieved 15 April 2013.</ref>

===Seventh-Day Adventists===
The [[Seventh-day Adventist Church]] holds the New Testament as the inspired Word of God, with God influencing the "thoughts" of the Apostles in the writing, not necessarily every word though. The first fundamental belief of the Seventh-Day Adventist church stated that "The Holy Scriptures are the [[Biblical infallibility|infallible]] revelation of [God's] will." [[Seventh-day Adventist theology|Adventist theologians]] generally reject the "verbal inspiration" position on Scripture held by many conservative [[evangelical Christians]]. They believe instead that God inspired the thoughts of the biblical authors and apostles, and that the writers then expressed these thoughts in their own words.<ref>{{cite book|title=Seventh-day Adventists Believe|author=Ministerial Association, General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists |year=2005 |publisher=Pacific Press Publishing Association |edition=2nd |pages=14–16}}</ref> This view is popularly known as "thought inspiration", and most Adventist members hold to that view. According to Ed Christian, former ''[[Journal of the Adventist Theological Society|JATS]]'' editor, "few if any [[Adventist Theological Society|ATS]] members believe in verbal inerrancy".<ref>{{cite web |last=McLarty |first=John |url=http://www.atoday.com/magazine/2001/11/adventist-theological-society-0 |title=The Adventist Theological Society |work=Adventist Today |date=15 November 2001 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071225063148/http://www.atoday.com/magazine/2001/11/adventist-theological-society-0 |archivedate=25 December 2007 }}</ref>

Regarding the teachings of the New Testament compared to the Old, and the application in the New Covenant, Adventists have traditionally taught that the [[Ethical Decalogue|Decalogue]] is part of the moral law of God, which was not abrogated by the ministry and death of [[Jesus Christ]]. Therefore, the fourth commandment concerning the Sabbath is as applicable to Christian believers as the other nine. Adventists have often taught a distinction between "moral law" and "ceremonial law". According to Adventist beliefs, the moral law continues into the "New Testament era", but the ceremonial law was done away with by Jesus.

How the [[Mosaic law]] should be applied came up at Adventist conferences in the past, and Adventist theologians such as [[A. T. Jones]] and [[E. J. Waggoner]] looked at the problem addressed by Paul in [[Epistle to the Galatians|Galatians]] as not the ceremonial law, but rather the wrong use of the law ([[legalism (theology)|legalism]]). They were opposed by [[Uriah Smith]] and [[George Ide Butler|George Butler]] at the 1888 Conference. Smith in particular thought the Galatians issue had been settled by Ellen White already, yet in 1890 she claimed justification by faith is "the [[Three Angels' Messages|third angel's message]] in verity."{{citation needed|date=May 2016}}

Ellen White interpreted {{bibleverse||Colossians|2:14|NIV}} as saying that the ceremonial law was nailed to the cross.<ref>White, Ellen (2015). [https://books.google.com/books?id=yKqXCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT409 ''Patriarchs and Prophets'']. Start Publishing LLC. p. 365.</ref>

===Latter-day Saints===
Members of [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] (LDS Church) believe that the New Testament, as part of the [[Christian biblical canons|Christian biblical canon]], is accurate "as far as it is translated correctly".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mormon.org/articles-of-faith |title=Articles of Faith |publisher=The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints |accessdate=17 February 2016}}</ref> They believe the Bible as originally revealed is the word of God, but that the processes of transcription and translation have introduced errors into the texts as currently available, and therefore they cannot be regarded as completely inerrant.<ref name="Givens2015">{{cite book|first=Terry L.|last=Givens|title=The Oxford Handbook of Mormonism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7c0fCgAAQBAJ|year=2015|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-977836-2|pages=124–125}}</ref><ref name=LDSInerrancy>{{cite web|url=https://www.lds.org/topics/bible-inerrancy-of?lang=eng|title=Bible, Inerrancy of|date=2016|publisher=The Church of the Latter Day Saints|accessdate=23 May 2016}}</ref> In addition to the Old and New Testaments, the [[Book of Mormon: Another Testament of Jesus Christ|Book of Mormon]], the [[Doctrine and Covenants]] and the [[Pearl of Great Price (Mormonism)|Pearl of Great Price]] are considered part of their scriptural canon.<ref>Encyclopedia of Mormonism, Macmillan 1992, pp. 106–107</ref><ref name="PaulsenMusser2007">{{cite book|author1=David Lamont Paulsen|author2=Donald W. Musser|title=Mormonism in Dialogue with Contemporary Christian Theologies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f4aYe_EbAQAC|year=2007|publisher=Mercer University Press|isbn=978-0-88146-083-4|page=277}}</ref>

==In the liturgy==
[[File:Codex Harcleianus.PNG|thumb|right|A Byzantine lectionary, ''[[Lectionary 150|Codex Harleianus]]'' (''l''150), 995 AD, text of John 1:18.]] Despite the wide variety among [[Christian liturgy|Christian liturgies]], texts from the New Testament play a role in almost all forms of [[Christian worship]]. In addition to some language derived from the New Testament in the [[liturgy]] itself (e.g., the [[Trisagion]] may be based on Apocalypse 4:8, and the beginning of the "Hymn of Praise" draws upon Luke 2:14), the reading of extended passages from the New Testament is a practice common to almost all [[Christian worship]], liturgical or not.

These [[Lection|readings]] are most often part of an established [[lectionary]] (i.e., [[Lection|selected texts]] to be read at church services on specific days), and (together with an Old Testament reading and a [[Psalms (Christian)|Psalm]]) include a non-gospel reading from the New Testament and culminate with a [[Gospel (liturgy)|Gospel reading]]. No readings from the [[Book of Revelation]], however, are included in the standard [[lectionary]] of the [[Orthodox church|Eastern Orthodox churches]].

Central to the [[Christian liturgy]] is the celebration of the [[Eucharist]] or "Holy Communion". The [[Words of Institution]] that begin this rite are drawn directly from 1 Corinthians 11:23–26. In addition, the communal recitation of the [[Lord's Prayer]] (in the form found in the Gospel of Matthew 6:9–13) is also a standard feature of [[Christian worship]].

==In the arts==
{{Further information|Nativity of Jesus in art|Passion play}}
[[File:GaudenzioFerrari StorieCristo Varallo2.jpg|thumb|[[Gaudenzio Ferrari]]'s ''Stories of the Life and Passion of Christ'', fresco, 1513, Church of Santa Maria delle Grazie, Varallo Sesia, Italy. Depicting the life of Jesus]]{{Listen|filename=G.F.Händel-Halleluja_hoerprobe.ogg|title="Hallelujah" chorus|right|image=none|description=The text of the famous "Hallelujah" chorus in G. F. Händel's ''Messiah'' is drawn from three passages in the Book of Revelation: 19:6, 11:5, and 19:16 (audio clip from the German translation of the ''Messiah'').|format=[[Ogg]]}} Most of the influence of the New Testament upon [[the arts]] has come from the [[Gospels]] and the [[Book of Revelation]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}} Literary expansion of the [[Nativity of Jesus]] found in the Gospels of Matthew and Luke began already in the 2nd century, and the portrayal of the Nativity has continued in various art forms to this day. The [[Early Christian art|earliest Christian art]] would often depict scenes from the New Testament such as the [[raising of Lazarus]], the [[baptism of Jesus]] or the motif of the [[Good Shepherd]].

[[Biblical paraphrase]]s and poetic renditions of stories from the life of Christ (e.g., the [[Heliand]]) became popular in the [[Middle Ages]], as did the portrayal of the [[Arrest of Jesus|arrest]], [[Trial of Jesus|trial]] and [[Crucifixion of Jesus|execution]] of Jesus in [[Passion play]]s. Indeed, the [[Passion (Christianity)|Passion]] became a central theme in Christian [[Crucifixion in the arts|art]] and [[Passion (music)|music]]. The [[:Category:Portrayals of Jesus in film|ministry]] and [[Passion (Christianity)#Film|Passion]] of Jesus, as portrayed in one or more of the [[:Category:Films based on the Gospels|New Testament Gospels]], has also been a theme in film, almost since the inception of the medium (e.g., "La Passion", France, 1903).

==See also==
* [[Authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews]]
* [[Catalogue of Vices and Virtues]]
* [[Chronology of Jesus]]
* [[Earlier Epistle to the Ephesians]] Non-canonical books referenced in the New Testament
* [[Historical background of the New Testament]]
* [[Life of Jesus in the New Testament]]
* [[List of Gospels]]
* [[Novum Testamentum Graece]]

{{clear}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note|colwidth=30em}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* [[Raymond E. Brown|Brown, Raymond E.]] (1997). ''An Introduction to the New Testament''. Anchor Bible Reference Library; New York: Doubleday.
* [[Rudolf Bultmann|Bultmann, Rudolf]] (1951–1955). ''Theology of the New Testament'', English translation, 2 volumes. New York: Scribner.
*{{Cite book
|last = Burkett
|first = Delbert
|title = An Introduction to the New Testament and the Origins of Christianity
|publisher = Cambridge University Press
|year = 2002
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=EcsQknxV-xQC&printsec=frontcover
|isbn = 978-0-521-00720-7
|ref = harv
}}
* von Campenhausen, Hans (1972). ''The Formation of the Christian Bible'', English translation. Philadelphia: Fortress Press.
* Clark, Gordon (1990). "Logical Criticisms of Textual Criticism", The Trinity Foundation: Jefferson, Maryland
* [[Hans Conzelmann|Conzelmann, Hans]]; Lindemann, Andreas (1999). ''Interpreting the New Testament: An Introduction to the Principles and Methods of New Testament Exegesis'', English translation. Peabody, Massachusetts: Hendrickson.
* Dormeyer, Detlev (1998). ''The New Testament among the Writings of Antiquity'', English translation. Sheffield.
* Duling, Dennis C.; [[Norman Perrin|Perrin, Norman]] (1993). ''The New Testament: Proclamation and Parenesis, Myth and History'', 3rd edition. New York: Harcourt Brace.
* [[Bart D. Ehrman|Ehrman, Bart D.]] (2011). ''The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings'', 5th edition. New York: Oxford University Press.
*{{Cite book
|last = Ehrman
|first = Bart D.
|authorlink = Bart D Ehrman
|title = Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew
|publisher = Oxford University Press
|year = 2005
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=URdACxKubDIC&printsec=frontcover
|ref = harv
|isbn = 9780195182491
}}
* [[Edgar J. Goodspeed|Goodspeed, Edgar J.]] (1937). ''An Introduction to the New Testament''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
* [[Amy-Jill Levine|Levine, Amy-Jill]]; [[Marc Zvi Brettler|Brettler, Marc Z.]] (2011). ''The Jewish Annotated New Testament''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
* [[Helmut Koester|Koester, Helmut]] (1995 and 2000). ''Introduction to the New Testament'', 2nd edition, 2 volumes. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
* Kümmel, Werner Georg (1996). ''Introduction to the New Testament'', revised and enlarged English translation. Nashville: Abingdon Press.
* [[Burton L. Mack|Mack, Burton L.]] (1995). ''Who Wrote the New Testament?''. San Francisco: HarperSanFrancisco.
* [[Stephen Neill|Neill, Stephen]]; Wright, Tom (1988). ''The Interpretation of the New Testametnt, 1861–1986'', new edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
* {{cite book |last=Nersessian |first=V. |chapter=The Armenian Canon of the New Testament |title=The Bible in the Armenian Tradition |location=Los Angeles, CA |publisher=J. Paul Getty Museum |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-89236-640-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7tSkalMzNvkC&pg=PA29 |ref=harv}}
*{{Cite book
|last = Perkins
|first = Pheme
|title = Introduction to the Synoptic Gospels
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lMUZhdgmOR8C&printsec=frontcover
|year = 2009
|publisher = Eerdmans
|isbn = 978-0-8028-6553-3
|ref = harv
}}
* [[Udo Schnelle|Schnelle, Udo]] (1998). ''The History and Theology of the New Testament Writings'', English translation. Minneapolis: Fortress Press.
* [[Garry Wills|Wills, Garry]], "A Wild and Indecent Book" (review of [[David Bentley Hart]], ''The New Testament: A Translation'', [[Yale University Press]], 577 pp.), ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXV, no. 2 (8 February 2018), pp. 34-35. Discusses some pitfalls in interpreting and translating the New Testament.
* [[Theodor Zahn|Zahn, Theodor]] (1910). ''Introduction to the New Testament'', English translation, 3 volumes. Edinburgh: T&T Clark.

==External links==
{{commons category|New Testament}}
{{wikiversity|Biblical Studies (NT)}}
{{Wikisource|Portal:Christianity#Scriptures|"Scriptures" in Christianity portal}}
{{Wikisourcelang|el|Καινή Διαθήκη|New Testament}}
{{wikiquote}}

===General references===
*[http://www.ntgateway.com/ New Testament Gateway] Annotated guide to academic New Testament Web resources including not only other Web sites, but articles and course materials
*[http://JewishStudies.eteacherbiblical.com/ Jewish Studies for Christians] An Online Study Group exploring the Jewish setting of the early Jesus movement. (An Israeli blog led by Dr. Eliyahu Lizorkin-Eyzenberg).
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20100815203224/http://oyc.yale.edu/religious-studies/introduction-to-new-testament "Introduction to New Testament History and Literature" course materials] "Open Yale course" taught at Yale University by Dale B. Martin
*[http://www.tyndale.ca/seminary/mtsmodular/reading-rooms/newt New Testament Reading Room]: Extensive on-line New Testament resources (including reference works, commentaries, translations, atlases, language tools, and works on New Testament theology), Tyndale Seminary
*[http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/nt.php Biblicalstudies.org New Testament pages] Bibliographies on the New Testament and its individual books
*[http://bible.christianity.com/Lexicons/NewTestamentGreek/ Christianity.com Bible Study Tools] For-profit, conservative religious site with links to translations, as well as to mostly out-dated and non-critical commentaries, concordances, and other reference works
*[http://www.wlsessays.net/subject/N/New+Testament Pastoral articles on the New Testament for ministerial training] Wisconsin Lutheran Seminary (WELS)
* [http://www.haaretz.com/culture/books/that-most-jewish-of-books-1.427292 Jewish reading of the New Testament] Haaretz essay on reclaiming the New Testament as an integral part of Jewish literature

===Development and authorship===
*[http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_ntb1.htm The Gospels] in the official canon, and some that were not included in the Bible
*[http://www.errantskeptics.org/DatingNT.htm Dating the New Testament] A compilation of the dates ascribed by [[Argumentum ad populum|various scholars]] to the composition of the New Testament documents, accompanied by an odd statistical average of the dates

===Greek===
*[http://www.ellopos.net/elpenor/greek-texts/new-testament/default.asp New Testament Koine Greek Original] Side by side with the English (King James) and [[Russian Synodal Bible|Russian (Synodal) translation]] Commentary by the Greek Fathers – Icons from [[Mount Athos]]
*[http://users.otenet.gr/~gmcr New Testament, Greek Polytonic Text according to Ecumenical Patriarchate] ''(Greek)''
*[http://www.greekbible.com/ Greek New Testament text (searchable only; no downloads) with lexical aids]

{{Books of the Bible}}
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{{Religious books}}
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[[Category:Christian terminology]]
[[Category:Greek literature (post-classical)]]
[[Category:Biblical exegesis]]

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