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{{about|the Christian Bible|the related Jewish text|Tanakh}}
{{Bible-related |CB}}
{{Christianity|state=collapsed}}
The '''Old Testament''' (abbreviated '''OT''') is the first part of [[Bible#Christian Bibles|Christian Bibles]], based primarily upon the [[Hebrew Bible]] (or Tanakh), a collection of ancient religious writings by the [[Israelites]]{{Sfn | Jones | 2001 | p = 215}} which is the sacred [[Authorship of the Bible|Word of God]].<ref>Preface to the [[New Revised Standard Version]] Anglicised Edition</ref> The second part of the Christian Bible is the [[New Testament]].
The [[Books of the Bible|books that comprise the Old Testament canon]], as well as their order and names, differ between [[Christian denominations]]. The [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] canon comprises 46 books, and the canons of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] Churches comprise up to 51 books{{Sfn | Barton | 2001 | p = 3}} and the most common [[Protestantism|Protestant]] canon comprises 39 books. The 39 books in common to all the Christian canons correspond to the 24 books of the Tanakh, with some differences of order, and there are some differences in text. The additional number reflects the splitting of several texts ([[Books of Kings|Kings]], [[Books of Samuel|Samuel]] and [[Books of Chronicles|Chronicles]], [[Ezra–Nehemiah]] and the minor prophets) into separate books in Christian bibles. The books which are part of a Christian Old Testament but which are not part of the Hebrew canon are sometimes described as [[Deuterocanonical books|deuterocanonical]]. In general, [[Protestant Bible]]s do not include the deuterocanonical books in their canon, but some versions of [[Anglican]] and [[Lutheran]] bibles place such books in a separate section called [[Biblical apocrypha|Apocrypha]]. These extra books are ultimately derived from the earlier [[Greek Septuagint]] collection of the Hebrew scriptures and are also Jewish in origin. Some are also contained in the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]].
The Old Testament consists of many distinct books [[Authorship of the Bible|by various authors]] produced over a period of centuries.<ref name="Lim 2005 41">{{cite book |title= The Dead Sea Scrolls: A Very Short Introduction|edition= |last= Lim|first= Timothy H.|year= 2005|publisher= Oxford University Press |location= Oxford|isbn= |page= 41}}</ref> Christians traditionally divide the Old Testament into four sections: (1) the first five books or Pentateuch ([[Torah]]); (2) the history books telling the history of the [[Israelite]]s, from their [[conquest of Canaan]] to their [[Babylonian exile|defeat and exile in Babylon]]; (3) the poetic and "[[Sapiential Books|Wisdom books]]" dealing, in various forms, with questions of good and evil in the world; and (4) the books of the biblical prophets, warning of the consequences of turning away from God.
== Content ==
{{Main|Biblical canon|Development of the Old Testament canon}}
The Old Testament contains 39 (Protestant), 46 (Catholic), or more (Orthodox and other) books, divided, very broadly, into the [[Torah|Pentateuch (Torah)]], the historical books, the [[Sapiential Books|"wisdom" books]] and the prophets.{{Sfn | Boadt | 1984 | pp = 11, 15–16}}
=== Table ===
The table uses the spellings and names present in modern editions of the Christian Bible, such as the Catholic [[New American Bible Revised Edition]] and the Protestant [[Revised Standard Version]] and [[English Standard Version]]. The spelling and names in both the 1609–10 [[Douay-Rheims Bible|Douay]] Old Testament (and in the 1582 Rheims New Testament) and the 1749 revision by [[Bishop Challoner]] (the edition currently in print used by many Catholics, and the source of traditional Catholic spellings in English) and in the Septuagint differ from those spellings and names used in modern editions which are derived from the Hebrew Masoretic text.{{Efn | Generally due to derivation from transliterations of names used in the Latin [[Vulgate]] in the case of Catholicism, and from transliterations of the Greek Septuagint in the case of the Orthodox (as opposed to derivation of translations, instead of transliterations, of Hebrew titles) such [[Ecclesiasticus]] (DRC) instead of [[Sirach]] (LXX) or [[Ben Sira]] (Hebrew), [[Paralipomenon]] (Greek, meaning "things omitted") instead of [[Books of Chronicles|Chronicles]], Sophonias instead of [[Zephaniah]], Noe instead of [[Noah]], Henoch instead of [[Enoch (ancestor of Noah)|Enoch]], [[Messias]] instead of [[Messiah]], Sion instead of [[Zion]], etc.}}
For the [[Eastern / Greek Orthodox Bible|Orthodox canon]], Septuagint titles are provided in parentheses when these differ from those editions. For the Catholic canon, the Douaic titles are provided in parentheses when these differ from those editions. Likewise, the King James Version references some of these books by the traditional spelling when referring to them in the New Testament, such as "Esaias" (for Isaiah).
In the spirit of [[ecumenism]] more recent [[Catholic Bible#Catholic English versions|Catholic translations]] (e.g. the [[New American Bible]], [[Jerusalem Bible]], and ecumenical translations used by Catholics, such as the [[Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition]]) use the same "standardized" (King James Version) spellings and names as [[Protestant Bible]]s (e.g. 1 Chronicles as opposed to the Douaic 1 Paralipomenon, 1–2 Samuel and 1–2 Kings instead of 1–4 Kings) in those books which are universally considered canonical, the [[Protocanonical books|protocanonicals]].
The [[Talmud]] (the Jewish commentary on the scriptures) in [[Bava Batra]] 14b gives a different order for the books in ''Nevi'im'' and ''Ketuvim''. This order is also cited in [[Mishneh Torah]] Hilchot [[Sefer (Hebrew)|Sefer]] [[Torah]] 7:15. The order of the books of the Torah is universal through all denominations of Judaism and Christianity.
The disputed books, included in one canon but not in others, are often called the [[Biblical apocrypha]], a term that is sometimes used specifically to describe the books in the Catholic and Orthodox canons that are absent from the Jewish Masoretic Text and most modern [[Protestant]] Bibles. Catholics, following the [[Canon of Trent]] (1546), describe these books as deuterocanonical, while Greek Orthodox Christians, following the [[Synod of Jerusalem (1672)]], use the traditional name of ''[[anagignoskomena]]'', meaning "that which is to be read." They are present in a few historic Protestant versions; the German [[Luther Bible]] included such books, as did the English [[Authorized King James Version|1611 King James Version]].{{Efn | The foundational [[Thirty-Nine Articles]] of [[Anglicanism]], in [[:s:Thirty-Nine Articles|Article VI]], asserts these disputed books are not used "to establish any doctrine", but "read for example of life." Although the Biblical apocrypha are still used in [[Anglican Liturgy]],<ref>{{Citation | format = PDF | publisher = Orthodox Anglican | quote = Two of the hymns used in the American Prayer Book office of Morning Prayer, the [[Benedictus (Song of Zechariah)|Benedictus es]] and [[Benedicite]], are taken from the Apocrypha. One of the offertory sentences in Holy Communion comes from an apocryphal book (Tob. 4: 8–9). Lessons from the Apocrypha are regularly appointed to be read in the daily, Sunday, and special services of Morning and Evening Prayer. There are altogether 111 such lessons in the latest revised American Prayer Book Lectionary [Books used are: II Esdras, Tobit, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, Three Holy Children, and I Maccabees.] | url = http://orthodoxanglican.net/downloads/apocrypha.pdf | title = The Apocrypha, Bridge of the Testaments | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090205074449/http://orthodoxanglican.net/downloads/apocrypha.pdf | archivedate = 2009-02-05 | df = }}</ref> the modern trend is to not even print the Old Testament apocrypha in editions of Anglican-used Bibles.}}
Empty table cells indicate that a book is absent from that canon.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! ''[[Tanakh]]''<br> ([[Hebrew Bible]])<br> (24 books){{Efn | The 24 books of the Hebrew Bible are the same as the 39 books of the Protestant Old Testament, only divided and ordered differently: the books of the Minor Prophets are in Christian Bibles twelve different books, and in Hebrew Bibles, one book called "The Twelve". Likewise, Christian Bibles divide the Books of Kingdoms into four books, either 1–2 Samuel and 1–2 Kings or 1–4 Kings: Jewish Bibles divide these into two books. The Jews likewise keep 1–2 Chronicles/Paralipomenon as one book. Ezra and Nehemiah are likewise combined in the Jewish Bible, as they are in many Orthodox Bibles, instead of divided into two books, as per the Catholic and Protestant tradition.}}<br>Books in '''bold''' are part of the ''[[Ketuvim]]''
! [[Protestant]]<br>Old Testament<br> (39 books)
! [[Catholic Church|Catholic]]<br>Old Testament<br> (46 books)
! style="text-align:center;"| [[Eastern Orthodox]]<br>Old Testament<br> (50 books)
! Original language
|- style="text-align:center;"
| | ''[[Torah]]''
| colspan="3" style="background:#fff;"| <div style="text-align:center;">''Pentateuch'' or the ''Five Books of Moses''</div>
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Genesis|Bereishit]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]]
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Exodus|Shemot]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]]
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Leviticus|Vayikra]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Leviticus|Leviticus]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Leviticus|Leviticus]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Leviticus|Leviticus]]
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Numbers|Bamidbar]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]]
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| style="background:#ccf; text-align:center; vertical-align:top;"| [[Book of Deuteronomy|Devarim]]
| style="background:#ccf; text-align:center; vertical-align:top;"| [[Book of Deuteronomy|Deuteronomy]]
| style="background:#ccf; text-align:center; vertical-align:top;"| [[Book of Deuteronomy|Deuteronomy]]
| style="background:#ccf; text-align:center; vertical-align:top;"| [[Book of Deuteronomy|Deuteronomy]]
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| | ''[[Nevi'im]] (Prophets)''
| colspan="3" style="background:#fff;"| <div style="text-align:center;">''[[Historical books]]''</div>
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Joshua|Yehoshua]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Joshua|Joshua (Josue)]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Joshua|Joshua (Iesous)]]
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Judges|Shofetim]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Judges|Judges]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Judges|Judges]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Judges|Judges]]
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#9f9;"| '''[[Book of Ruth|Rut (Ruth)]]'''<ref name="ketuvim" group="lower-alpha">This book is part of the ''[[Ketuvim]]'', the third section of the Jewish canon. They have a different order in Jewish canon than in Christian canon.</ref>
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]]
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Samuel|Shemuel]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel (1 Kings)]]<ref name="Kings" group="lower-alpha">The books of Samuel and Kings are often called First through Fourth Kings in the Catholic tradition, much like the Orthodox.</ref>
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel (1 Kingdoms)]]<ref name="septuagint" group="lower-alpha">Names in parentheses are the Septuagint names and are often used by the Orthodox Christians.</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Samuel|2 Samuel]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Samuel|2 Samuel (2 Kings)]]<ref name="Kings" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Samuel|2 Samuel (2 Kingdoms)]]<ref name="septuagint" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Kings|Melakhim]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Kings|1 Kings]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Kings|1 Kings (3 Kings)]]<ref name="Kings" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Kings|1 Kings (3 Kingdoms)]]<ref name="septuagint" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Kings|2 Kings]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Kings|2 Kings (4 Kings)]]<ref name="Kings" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Kings|2 Kings (4 Kingdoms)]]<ref name="septuagint" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#9f9;"| '''[[Books of Chronicles|Divrei Hayamim (Chronicles)]]'''<ref name="ketuvim" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles (1 Paralipomenon)]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles (1 Paralipomenon)]]
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles (2 Paraleipomenon)]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles (2 Paraleipomenon)]]
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
|
|
|
| style="background:#fc9; text-align:center; vertical-align:top;"| [[1 Esdras]]<ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha">One of 11 deuterocanonical books in the [[Russian Synodal Bible]].</ref><ref name="RSB 1 esdras" group="lower-alpha">2 Esdras in the [[Russian Synodal Bible]].</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#9f9;"| '''[[Ezra–Nehemiah]]'''<ref name="ketuvim" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Ezra|Ezra (1 Esdras)]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Ezra|Ezra (2 Esdras)]]<ref name="septuagint" group="lower-alpha" /><ref name="ezra" group="lower-alpha">Some Eastern Orthodox churches follow the [[Septuagint]] and Hebrew Bibles by considering the books of [[Ezra and Nehemiah]] as one book.</ref><ref name="RSB 2 esdras" group="lower-alpha">1 Esdras in the [[Russian Synodal Bible]].</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew and Aramaic
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah (2 Esdras)]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah (2 Esdras)]]<ref name="septuagint" group="lower-alpha" /><ref name="ezra" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" |
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Tobit|Tobit (Tobias)]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Tobit|Tobit]]<ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center;"| Aramaic (and Hebrew?)
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Judith|Judith]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Judith|Judith]]<ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#9f9;"| '''[[Book of Esther|Esther]]'''<ref name="ketuvim" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Esther|Esther]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Esther|Esther]]<ref name="esther" group="lower-alpha">The Catholic and Orthodox Book of Esther includes 103 verses not in the Protestant Book of Esther.</ref>
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Esther|Esther]]<ref name="esther" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| rowspan="5" |
| rowspan="5" |
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[1 Maccabees]] (1 Machabees)<ref name="maccabees" group="lower-alpha">The [[Latin Vulgate]], [[Douay-Rheims]], and [[Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition]] place First and Second Maccabees after Malachi; other Catholic translations place them after Esther.</ref>
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[1 Maccabees]]<ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#fc9;"| [[2 Maccabees]] (2 Machabees)<ref name="maccabees" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="background:#fc9;"| [[2 Maccabees]]<ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha" />
| | Greek
|-
| rowspan="3" |
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[3 Maccabees]]<ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center;"| Greek
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[2 Esdras|3 Esdras]]<ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center;"| Greek?
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="text-align:center;"| [[4 Maccabees]]{{Efn | In Greek Bibles, 4 Maccabees is found in the appendix.}}
| style="text-align:center;"| Greek
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| ''[[Ketuvim]] (Writings)''
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"| ''[[Sapiential books|Wisdom books]]''
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#9f9;"| '''[[Book of Job|Iyov (Job)]]'''<ref name="ketuvim" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center; background:#9f9;"| [[Book of Job|Job]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#9f9;"| [[Book of Job|Job]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#9f9;"| [[Book of Job|Job]]
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#9f9;"| '''[[Psalms|Tehillim (Psalms)]]'''<ref name="ketuvim" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="background:#9f9;"| [[Psalms]]
| style="background:#9f9;"| [[Psalms]]
| style="background:#9f9;"| [[Psalms]]<ref name="psalms" group="lower-alpha">Eastern Orthodox churches include [[Psalm 151]] and the [[Prayer of Manasseh]], not present in all canons.</ref>
| | Hebrew
|-
|
|
|
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Prayer of Manasseh]]<ref name="RSB manasseh" group="lower-alpha">Part of 2 Paralipomenon in the [[Russian Synodal Bible]].</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"| Greek
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#9f9;"| '''[[Book of Proverbs|Mishlei (Proverbs)]]'''<ref name="ketuvim" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center; background:#9f9;"| [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#9f9;"| [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#9f9;"| [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]]
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
<!-- At least, that's what I think Притчи is, but I should check -->
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#9f9;"| '''[[Ecclesiastes|Qoheleth (Ecclesiastes)]]'''<ref name="ketuvim" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="background:#9f9;"| [[Ecclesiastes]]
| style="background:#9f9;"| [[Ecclesiastes]]
| style="background:#9f9;"| [[Ecclesiastes]]
| | Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#9f9;"| '''[[Song of Songs|Shir Hashirim (Song of Songs)]]'''<ref name="ketuvim" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="background:#9f9;"| [[Song of Solomon]]
| style="background:#9f9;"| [[Song of Songs]] (Canticle of Canticles)
| style="background:#9f9;"| [[Song of Songs]] (Aisma Aismaton)
| | Hebrew
|-
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" |
| style="text-align:center; background:#9f9;"| [[Book of Wisdom|Wisdom]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#9f9;"| [[Book of Wisdom|Wisdom]]<ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center;"| Greek
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#9f9;"| [[Sirach]] (Ecclesiasticus)
| style="background:#9f9;"| [[Sirach]]<ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha" />
| | Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| ''[[Nevi'im]] (Latter Prophets)''
| colspan="3"| ''[[Major prophet]]s''
|-
| style="background:#fc9; text-align:center; vertical-align:top;"| [[Book of Isaiah|Yeshayahu]]
| style="background:#f9f; text-align:center; vertical-align:top;"| [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]]
| style="background:#f9f; text-align:center; vertical-align:top;"| [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah (Isaias)]]
| style="background:#f9f; text-align:center; vertical-align:top;"| [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]]
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Jeremiah|Yirmeyahu]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#f9f;"| [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#f9f;"| [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah (Jeremias)]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#f9f;"| [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]]
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#9f9;"| '''[[Book of Lamentations|Eikhah (Lamentations)]]'''<ref name="ketuvim" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center; background:#f9f;"| [[Book of Lamentations|Lamentations]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#f9f;"| [[Book of Lamentations|Lamentations]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#f9f;"| [[Book of Lamentations|Lamentations]]
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| rowspan=2 |
| rowspan=2 |
| rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; background:#f9f;"| [[Book of Baruch|Baruch]]<ref name="baruch" group="lower-alpha">In Catholic Bibles, Baruch includes a sixth chapter called the [[Letter of Jeremiah]]. Baruch is not in the Protestant Bible or the Tanakh.</ref>
| style="text-align:center; background:#f9f;"| [[Book of Baruch|Baruch]]<ref name="baruch" group="lower-alpha" /><ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew<ref>{{Citation | title=Baruch |work = Encyclopædia Britannica | year = 1911}}</ref>
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#f9f;"| [[Letter of Jeremiah]]{{Efn | Eastern Orthodox Bibles have the books of Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah separate.}}<ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha" />
| | Greek (majority view){{Efn | Hebrew (minority view); see [[Letter of Jeremiah]] for details.}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Ezekiel|Yekhezqel]]
| style="background:#f9f;"| [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]]
| style="background:#f9f;"| [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel (Ezechiel)]]
| style="background:#f9f;"| [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]]
| | Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#9f9;"| '''[[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]'''<ref name="ketuvim" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="background:#f9f;"| [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]
| style="background:#f9f;"| [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]<ref name="daniel" group="lower-alpha">In Catholic and Orthodox Bibles, Daniel includes three sections not included in Protestant Bibles. [[The Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children]] are included between Daniel 3:23–24. [[Susanna (Book of Daniel)|Susanna]] is included as Daniel 13. [[Bel and the Dragon]] is included as Daniel 14. These are not in the Protestant Old Testament.</ref>
| style="background:#f9f;"| [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]<ref name="daniel" group="lower-alpha" />
| | Hebrew and Aramaic
|- style="text-align:center;"
|
| colspan="3"| ''[[Twelve Minor Prophets]]''
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#fc9;" rowspan="12"| [[Twelve Minor Prophets|The Twelve]] <br>or <br>''Trei Asar''
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Hosea|Hosea (Osee)]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]]
| Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Joel|Joel]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Joel|Joel]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Joel|Joel]]
| Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Amos|Amos]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Amos|Amos]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Amos|Amos]]
| Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Obadiah|Obadiah]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Obadiah|Obadiah (Abdias)]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Obadiah|Obadiah]]
| Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Jonah|Jonah (Jonas)]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]]
| Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Micah|Micah]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Micah|Micah (Michaeas)]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Micah|Micah]]
| Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Nahum|Nahum]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Nahum|Nahum]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Nahum|Nahum]]
| Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk (Habacuc)]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]]
| Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah (Sophonias)]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah]]
| Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Haggai|Haggai]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Haggai|Haggai (Aggaeus)]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Haggai|Haggai]]
| Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah (Zacharias)]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]]
| Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Malachi|Malachi]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Malachi|Malachi (Malachias)]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Malachi|Malachi]]
| Hebrew
|}<references group=T />
Several of the books in the Eastern Orthodox canon are also found in the appendix to the Latin Vulgate, formerly the official bible of the Roman Catholic Church.
{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="2" style="background:#fff;"| <div style="text-align:center;">''Books in the Appendix to the [[Vulgate]] Bible''</div>
|-
! Name in Vulgate<br>
! Name in Eastern Orthodox use
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[1 Esdras|3 Esdras]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[1 Esdras]]
|- style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"
| | [[2 Esdras|4 Esdras]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"|
|- style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"
| | [[Prayer of Manasseh]]
| | [[Prayer of Manasseh]]
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Psalm 151|Psalm of David when he slew Goliath (Psalm 151)]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Psalm 151]]
|}<references group=T />
== Composition ==
The first five books – [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]], [[book of Exodus|Exodus]], [[Leviticus]], [[book of Numbers]] and [[Deuteronomy]] – reached their present form in the [[Yehud Medinata|Persian period (538–332 BC)]], and their authors were the elite of exilic returnees who controlled the [[Second Temple|Temple at that time]].{{Sfn | Blenkinsopp | 1998 | p = 184}} The books of [[book of Joshua|Joshua]], [[book of Judges|Judges]], [[books of Samuel|Samuel]] and [[books of Kings|Kings]] follow, forming a history of Israel from the [[Conquest of Canaan]] to the [[Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)|Siege of Jerusalem c. 587 BC]]. There is a broad consensus among scholars that these originated as a single work (the so-called "[[Deuteronomistic history]]") during the [[Babylonian exile]] of the 6th century BC.{{Sfn | Rogerson | 2003 | pp = 153–54}}
The two [[Books of Chronicles]] cover much the same material as the Pentateuch and Deuteronomistic history and probably date from the 4th century BC.{{Sfn | Coggins | 2003 | p = 282}} Chronicles, and [[Ezra–Nehemiah]], were probably finished during the 3rd century BC.{{Sfn | Grabbe | 2003 | pp = 213–14}} Catholic and Orthodox Old Testaments contain two (Catholic Old Testament) to four (Orthodox) [[Books of Maccabees]], written in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC.
These history books make up around half the total content of the Old Testament. Of the remainder, the books of the various prophets – [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]], [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]], [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]], [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] and the twelve "[[minor prophets]]" – were written between the 8th and 6th centuries BC, with the exceptions of [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]] and [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]], which were written much later.{{Sfn | Miller | 1987 | pp = 10–11}} The "wisdom" books – [[Book of Job|Job]], [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]], [[Book of Ecclesiastes|Ecclesiastes]], [[Book of Psalms|Psalms]], [[Book of Song of Solomon|Song of Solomon]] – have various dates: Proverbs possibly was completed by the Hellenistic time (332-198 BC), though containing much older material as well; Job completed by the 6th century BC; Ecclesiastes by the 3rd century BC.{{Sfn | Crenshaw | 2010 | p = 5}}
== Themes ==
God is consistently depicted as the one who created the world. Although the God of the Old Testament is not consistently presented as [[monotheism|the only God who exists]], he is always depicted as [[Monolatrism|the only God whom Israel is to worship]], or the one "true God", that only [[Yahweh]] is Almighty, and both Jews and Christians have always interpreted the Bible (both the "Old" and "New" Testaments) as an affirmation of the oneness of Almighty God.{{Sfn | Barton | 2001 | p = 9}}
The Old Testament stresses the special relationship between God and his [[chosen people]], Israel, but includes instructions for [[proselyte]]s as well. This relationship is expressed in the [[biblical covenant]] (contract) between the two, received by Moses. The law codes in books such as [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]] and especially [[Deuteronomy]] are the terms of the contract: Israel swears faithfulness to [[Tetragrammaton|God]], and God swears to be Israel's special protector and supporter.{{Sfn | Barton | 2001 | p = 9}}
Further themes in the Old Testament include [[salvation]], [[Redemption (theology)|redemption]], [[divine judgment]], obedience and disobedience, [[faith]] and faithfulness, among others. Throughout there is a strong emphasis on [[ethics]] and [[ritual purity]], both of which God demands, although some of the prophets and wisdom writers seem to question this, arguing that God demands [[social justice]] above purity, and perhaps does not even care about purity at all. The Old Testament's moral code enjoins fairness, intervention on behalf of the vulnerable, and the duty of those in power to administer justice righteously. It forbids murder, bribery and corruption, deceitful trading, and many [[porneia|sexual misdemeanors]]. All morality is traced back to God, who is the source of all goodness.{{Sfn | Barton | 2001 | p = 10}}
The [[problem of evil]] plays a large part in the Old Testament. The problem the Old Testament authors faced was that a good God must have had just reason for bringing disaster (meaning notably, but not only, the [[Babylonian exile]]) upon his people. The theme is played out, with many variations, in books as different as the histories of Kings and Chronicles, the prophets like Ezekiel and Jeremiah, and in the wisdom books like Job and Ecclesiastes.{{Sfn | Barton | 2001 | p = 10}}
== Formation ==
{{Main|Books of the Bible|Biblical canon}}
{{See also|Development of the Hebrew Bible canon|Development of the Old Testament canon|Septuagint|Books of the Latin Vulgate}}
[[File:Texts of the OT.svg|thumb|upright=2.05|The interrelationship between various significant ancient manuscripts of the Old Testament, according to the ''[[Encyclopaedia Biblica]]'' (1903). Some manuscripts are identified by their [[Scribal abbreviation|siglum]]. LXX here denotes the original Septuagint.]]
The process by which scriptures became canons and Bibles was a long one, and its complexities account for the many different Old Testaments which exist today. Timothy H. Lim, a professor of Hebrew Bible and Second Temple Judaism at the [[University of Edinburgh]], identifies the Old Testament as "a collection of authoritative texts of apparently divine origin that went through a human process of writing and editing."<ref name="Lim 2005 41" /> He states that it is not a magical book, nor was it literally written by [[God in Judaism|God]] and passed to mankind. By about the 5th century BC Jews saw the five books of the [[Torah]] (the Old Testament Pentateuch) as having authoritative status; by the 2nd century BC the Prophets had a similar status, although without quite the same level of respect as the Torah; beyond that, the Jewish scriptures were fluid, with different groups seeing authority in different books.{{Sfn | Brettler | 2005 | p = 274}}
=== Greek ===
{{see also|Septuagint|Masoretic Text}}
Hebrew texts commenced to be translated into Greek in [[Alexandria]] in about 280 and continued until about 130 BC.{{Sfn | Gentry | 2008 | p = 302}} These early Greek translations {{ndash}} supposedly commissioned by [[Ptolemy II|Ptolemy Philadelphus]] {{ndash}} were called the [[Septuagint]] (Latin: "Seventy") from the supposed number of translators involved (hence its abbreviation "[[LXX]]"). This Septuagint remains the basis of the Old Testament in the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox Church]].{{Sfn | Würthwein | 1995}}
It varies in many places from the [[Masoretic Text]] and includes numerous books no longer considered canonical in some traditions: 1 and 2 [[Esdras]], [[Judith]], [[Book of Tobit|Tobit]], 3 and 4 [[Books of the Maccabees|Maccabees]], the [[Book of Wisdom]], [[Sirach]], and [[Book of Baruch|Baruch]].{{Sfn | Jones | 2001 | p = 216}} Early modern [[Biblical criticism]] typically explained these variations as intentional or ignorant corruptions by the Alexandrian scholars, but most recent scholarship holds it is simply based on early source texts differing from those later used by the [[Masoretes]] in their work.
The Septuagint was originally used by [[Hellenization|Hellenized]] Jews whose knowledge of [[Koine Greek|Greek]] was better than Hebrew. But the texts came to be used predominantly by gentile converts to Christianity and by the early Church as its scripture, Greek being the ''lingua franca'' of the early Church. The three most acclaimed early interpreters were [[Aquila of Sinope]], [[Symmachus the Ebionite]], and [[Theodotion]]; in his [[Hexapla]], [[Origen]] placed his edition of the Hebrew text beside [[Secunda (Hexapla)|its transcription in Greek letters]] and four parallel translations: Aquila's, Symmachus's, the Septuagint's, and Theodotion's. The so-called "fifth" and "sixth editions" were two other Greek translations supposedly miraculously discovered by students outside the towns of [[Jericho]] and [[Nicopolis]]: these were added to Origen's Octapla.<ref>Cave, William. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=-L5UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA406 A complete history of the lives, acts, and martyrdoms of the holy apostles, and the two evangelists, St. Mark and Luke]'', Vol. II. Wiatt (Philadelphia), 1810. Retrieved 6 Feb 2013.</ref>
In 331, [[Constantine I and Christianity|Constantine I]] commissioned [[Eusebius]] to deliver [[Fifty Bibles of Constantine|fifty Bibles]] for the [[Church of Constantinople]]. [[Athanasius]]<ref>''Apol. Const. 4''</ref> recorded [[Early centers of Christianity#Alexandria|Alexandrian]] scribes around 340 preparing Bibles for [[Constans]]. Little else is known, though there is plenty of speculation. For example, it is speculated that this may have provided motivation for canon lists, and that [[Codex Vaticanus]] and [[Codex Sinaiticus]] are examples of these Bibles. Together with the [[Peshitta]] and [[Codex Alexandrinus]], these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles.<ref>''The Canon Debate'', pp. 414–15, for the entire paragraph</ref> There is no evidence among the [[First Council of Nicaea#The biblical canon|canons of the First Council of Nicaea]] of any determination on the canon, however, [[Jerome]] (347–420), in his ''Prologue to Judith'', makes the claim that the [[Book of Judith]] was "found by the Nicene Council to have been counted among the number of the Sacred Scriptures".<ref>{{CathEncy|wstitle=Book of Judith}} Canonicity: "..."the Synod of Nicaea is said to have accounted it as Sacred Scripture" (Praef. in Lib.). It is true that no such declaration is to be found in the Canons of Nicaea, and it is uncertain whether St. Jerome is referring to the use made of the book in the discussions of the council, or whether he was misled by some spurious canons attributed to that council".</ref>
=== Latin ===
{{see also|Deuterocanonical books|Vulgate}}
In [[Western Christianity]] or Christianity in the [[Western Roman Empire|Western half of the Roman Empire]], Latin had displaced Greek as the common language of the early Christians, and in 382 AD [[Pope Damasus I]] commissioned [[Jerome]], the leading scholar of the day, to produce an updated Latin bible to replace the [[Vetus Latina]], which was a Latin translation of the Septuagint. Jerome's work, called the [[Vulgate]], was a direct translation from Hebrew, since he argued for the superiority of [[Development of the Hebrew Bible canon|the Hebrew texts]] in correcting the Septuagint on both philological and theological grounds.<ref>Rebenich, S., ''Jerome'' (Routledge, 2013), p. 58. {{ISBN|9781134638444}}</ref> His Vulgate Old Testament became the standard bible used in the Western Church, specifically as the [[Sixto-Clementine Vulgate]], while the [[Eastern Christianity|Churches in the East]] continued, and still continue, to use the Septuagint.{{Sfn | Würthwein | 1995 | pp = 91–99}}
Jerome, however, in the [[Vulgate#Prologues|Vulgate's prologues]] describes some portions of books in the Septuagint not found in the Hebrew Bible as being non-[[biblical canon|canonical]] (he called them ''[[biblical apocrypha|apocrypha]]'');<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/bible/prologi.shtml|title=The Bible}}</ref> for ''[[Book of Baruch|Baruch]]'', he mentions by name in his ''Prologue to Jeremiah'' and notes that it is neither read nor held among the Hebrews, but does not explicitly call it apocryphal or "not in the canon".<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.bombaxo.com/blog/?p=233 |title=Jerome's Prologue to Jeremiah |author=Kevin P. Edgecomb}}</ref> The [[Synod of Hippo]] (in 393), followed by the [[Council of Carthage (397)]] and the [[Council of Carthage (419)]], may be the first council that explicitly accepted the first canon which includes the books that did not appear in the [[Hebrew Bible]];<ref>McDonald & Sanders, editors of ''The Canon Debate'', 2002, chapter 5: ''The Septuagint: The Bible of Hellenistic Judaism'' by Albert C. Sundberg Jr., page 72, Appendix D-2, note 19.</ref> the councils were under significant influence of [[Augustine of Hippo]], who regarded the canon as already closed.<ref>Everett Ferguson, "Factors leading to the Selection and Closure of the New Testament Canon", in ''The Canon Debate''. eds. L. M. McDonald & J. A. Sanders (Hendrickson, 2002) p. 320; F. F. Bruce, ''The Canon of Scripture'' (Intervarsity Press, 1988) p. 230; cf. Augustine, ''De Civitate Dei'' 22.8</ref>
=== Protestant ===
In the 16th century, the Protestant reformers sided with Jerome; yet although most Protestant Bibles now have only those books that appear in the Hebrew Bible, they have them in the order of the Greek Bible.{{Sfn | Barton | 1997 | pp = 80–81}}
Rome then officially adopted a canon, the [[Canon of Trent]], which is seen as following Augustine's Carthaginian Councils<ref>{{citation |chapter-url=http://www.ccel.org/s/schaff/history/3_ch09.htm |title=History of the Christian Church |chapter=Chapter IX. Theological Controversies, and Development of the Ecumenical Orthodoxy |author=[[Philip Schaff]] |publisher=CCEL}}</ref> or the [[Council of Rome]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Lindberg |title=A Brief History of Christianity |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2006 |page=15}}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |edition=2nd |editor=F.L. Cross, E.A. Livingstone |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1983 |page=232}}</ref> and includes most, but not all, of the Septuagint ([[3 Ezra]] and 3 and 4 [[Maccabees]] are excluded);{{Sfn | Soggin | 1987 | p = 19}} the [[Anglican]]s after the [[English Civil War]] adopted a compromise position, restoring the [[39 Articles]] and keeping the extra books that were excluded by the [[Westminster Confession of Faith]], but only for private study and for [[Anglican Liturgy|reading in churches]], while [[Lutheran]]s kept them for private study, gathered in an appendix as [[Biblical Apocrypha]].{{Sfn | Barton | 1997 | pp = 80–81}}
=== Other versions ===
While the Hebrew, Greek and Latin versions of the Hebrew Bible are the best known Old Testaments, there were others. At much the same time as the Septuagint was being produced, translations were being made into Aramaic, the language of Jews living in Palestine and the Near East and likely the [[Aramaic of Jesus|language of Jesus]]: these are called the Aramaic [[Targum]]s, from a word meaning "translation", and were used to help Jewish congregations understand their scriptures.{{Sfn | Würthwein | 1995 | pp = 79–90, 100–4}}
For Aramaic Christians there was a [[Syriac language|Syriac]] translation of the Hebrew Bible called the [[Peshitta]], as well as versions in [[Coptic language|Coptic]] (the everyday language of Egypt in the first Christian centuries, descended from ancient Egyptian), [[Ethiopic]] (for use in the Ethiopian church, one of the oldest Christian churches), [[Armenian people|Armenian]] (Armenia was the first to adopt Christianity as its official religion), and [[Arabic]].{{Sfn | Würthwein | 1995 | pp = 79–90, 100–4}}
== Christian theology ==
{{Main|Christian views on the Old Covenant}}
Christianity is based on the belief that the [[historical Jesus]] is also the [[Christ]], as in the [[Confession of Peter]]. This belief is in turn based on Jewish understandings of the meaning of the Hebrew term [[messiah]], which, like the Greek "Christ", means "anointed". In the Hebrew Scriptures it describes a king anointed with oil on his accession to the throne: he becomes "The {{LORD}}'s anointed" or [[Yahweh]]'s Anointed. By the time of Jesus, some Jews expected that a flesh and blood descendant of David (the "[[Davidic line|Son of David]]") would come to establish a real Jewish kingdom in Jerusalem, instead of the [[Iudaea Province|Roman province]].{{Sfn | Farmer | 1991 | pp = 570–71}}
Others stressed the [[Son of Man]], a distinctly other-worldly figure who would appear as a [[Last judgment|judge at the end of time]]; and some harmonised the two by expecting a this-worldly messianic kingdom which would last for a set period and be followed by the other-worldly age or [[World to Come]]. Some thought the Messiah was already present, but unrecognised due to Israel's sins; some thought that the Messiah would be announced by a fore-runner, probably [[Elijah]] (as promised by the prophet Malachi, whose book now ends the Old Testament and precedes [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]]'s account of [[John the Baptist]]). None predicted a Messiah who suffers and dies for the sins of all the people.{{Sfn | Farmer | 1991 | pp = 570–71}} The story of Jesus' death therefore involved a profound shift in meaning from the tradition of the Old Testament.{{Sfn | Juel | 2000 | pp = 236–39}}
The name "Old Testament" reflects Christianity's understanding of itself as the [[Supersessionism|fulfillment]] of Jeremiah's prophecy of a [[New Covenant]] (which is similar to "testament" and often conflated) to replace the existing [[Covenant (biblical)|covenant]] between God and Israel (Jeremiah 31:31).{{Sfn | Jones | 2001 | p = 215}} The emphasis, however, has shifted from Judaism's understanding of the covenant as a racially or tribally-based contract between God and Jews to one between God and any person of faith who is "in Christ".{{Sfn | Herion | 2000 | pp = 291–92}}
== See also ==
* [[Abrogation of Old Covenant laws]]
* [[Biblical and Quranic narratives]]
* [[Book of Job in Byzantine illuminated manuscripts]]
* [[Books of the Bible]]
* [[Covenant (biblical)]]
* [[Expounding of the Law]]
* [[Timeline of Genesis patriarchs]]
* [[Law and Gospel]]
* [[List of ancient legal codes]]
* [[List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts]]
* [[Marcion of Sinope]]
* [[Non-canonical books referenced in the Bible]]
* [[Quotations from the Hebrew Bible in the New Testament]]
* [[Supersessionism]]
== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}
== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
== Bibliography ==
* {{Citation | last= Bandstra| first= Barry L| title= Reading the Old Testament: an introduction to the Hebrew Bible| publisher= Wadsworth| year = 2004 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=vRY9mTUZKJcC&pg=PA489&lpg=PA489&dq=Bandstra,+Barry+L+%282004%29.+Reading+the+Old+Testament:+an+introduction+to+the+Hebrew+Bible#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn= 978-0-495-39105-0}}
* {{Citation |last=Barton|first=John|title=How the Bible came to be|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=1997|url= https://books.google.com/?id=UfU4_9M4N2YC&printsec=frontcover&dq=How+the+Bible+came+to+be+Barton#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn= 978-0-664-25785-9}}
* {{Citation |last=Barton|first=John| author-mask = 3 | chapter=Introduction to the Old Testament|url = https://books.google.com/?id=3surkLVdw3UC&pg=PA6&dq=B.+Collecting+the+Hebrew+Scriptures#v=onepage&q=B.%20Collecting%20the%20Hebrew%20Scriptures&f=false |editor1-first =John | editor2-last = Barton | editor2-first = John | editor-last = Muddiman|title= Bible Commentary|publisher= Oxford University Press|year= 2001|isbn = 978-0-19-875500-5}}
* {{Citation |last=Blenkinsopp|first=Joseph|authorlink=Joseph Blenkinsopp|chapter=The Pentateuch|url= https://books.google.com/?id=PSHCRgS_SAUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Cambridge+companion+to+biblical+interpretation#v=onepage&q&f=false | editor-first = John | editor-last = Barton| title= The Cambridge companion to biblical interpretation|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1998|isbn= 978-0-521-48593-7}}
* {{Citation |last=Boadt|first=Lawrence|authorlink=Lawrence Boadt|title=Reading the Old Testament: an introduction|publisher=Paulist Press|year=1984|url = https://books.google.com/?id=LGQNT6G_do8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Reading+the+Old+Testament:+an+introduction#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn = 978-0-8091-2631-6}}
* {{Citation |last=Brettler|first=Marc Zvi|authorlink=Marc Zvi Brettler|title=How to read the Bible|publisher=Jewish Publication Society|year=2005|url= https://books.google.com/?id=39nQafdJ_ssC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Brettler+how+to+read+the+bible#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn= 978-0-8276-1001-9}}
* {{Citation |last=Bultman|first=Christoph|chapter=Deuteronomy|url= https://books.google.com/?id=3surkLVdw3UC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Oxford+Bible+commentary#v=onepage&q=Deuteronomy&f=false |editor1-first =John | editor1-last = Barton | editor2-first = John | editor2-last = Muddiman |title=Oxford Bible Commentary|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2001|isbn= 978-0-19-875500-5}}
* {{Citation |last=Coggins|first=Richard J|authorlink=Richard Coggins|chapter=1 and 2 Chronicles|url= https://books.google.com/?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&pg=PA153&lpg=PA153&dq=Chronicles+Richard+J+Coggins#v=onepage&q=Deuteronomy%20John%20W%20Rogerson&f=false | editor1-first = James DG | editor1-last = Dunn | editor2-first = John William | editor2-last = Rogerson|title= Commentary on the Bible|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2003|isbn= 978-0-8028-3711-0}}
* {{Citation |last=Crenshaw|first=James L|authorlink=James L. Crenshaw|title=Old Testament wisdom: an introduction|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=2010|url = https://books.google.com/?id=tKpWNrkO8dEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Old+Testament+wisdom:+an+introduction++By+James+L.+Crenshaw#v=onepage&q&f=false | isbn = 978-0-664-23459-1}}
* {{Citation |last=Davies|first=GI |chapter=Introduction to the Pentateuch|url= https://books.google.com/?id=3surkLVdw3UC&pg=PA12&dq=Oxford+Bible+Commentary+Introduction+to+the+Pentateuch#v=onepage&q=Oxford%20Bible%20Commentary%20Introduction%20to%20the%20Pentateuch&f=false | editor-first =John | editor-last = Barton|title=Oxford Bible Commentary|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998|isbn= 978-0-19-875500-5}}
* {{Citation |last=Dines|first=Jennifer M|title=The Septuagint|work=Continuum|year=2004|url= https://books.google.com/?id=Qv8Riv3QIbQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Dines+Septuagint#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn= 978-0-567-08464-4}}
* {{Citation |last=Farmer|first= Ron|chapter= Messiah/Christ|url= https://books.google.com/?id=goq0VWw9rGIC&pg=PA570#v=onepage&q&f=false | editor1-first = Watson E | editor1-last = Mills | editor2-first = Roger Aubrey | editor2-last = Bullard|title=Mercer dictionary of the Bible|publisher= Mercer University Press|year=1991|isbn= 978-0-86554-373-7}}
* {{Citation |last=Gentry|first=Peter R|chapter=Old Greek and Later Revisors|url= https://books.google.com/?id=NoCJKyxEujEC&pg=PA301&dq=Old+Greek+and+Later+Revisors:+Can+we+always+distinguish+them#v=onepage&q=Old%20Greek%20and%20Later%20Revisors%3A%20Can%20we%20always%20distinguish%20them%3F&f=false |editor1-first =Raija | editor1-last = Sollamo | editor2-first = Anssi | editor2-last = Voitila | editor3-first = Jutta | editor3-last = Jokiranta|title=Scripture in transition|publisher=Brill|year=2008|isbn= 978-90-04-16582-3}}
* {{Citation |last=Grabbe|first=Lester L|authorlink=Lester L. Grabbe|chapter=Ezra|url= https://books.google.com/?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&pg=PA153&lpg=PA153&dq=Deuteronomy+John+W+Rogerson#v=onepage&q=Deuteronomy%20John%20W%20Rogerson&f=false |editor1-first = James DG | editor1-last = Dunn | editor2-first = John William | editor2-last = Rogerson|title= Commentary on the Bible|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2003|isbn= 978-0-8028-3711-0}}
* {{Citation |last=Hasel|first=Gerhard F|authorlink=Gerhard Hasel|title=Old Testament theology: basic issues in the current debate|publisher= Eerdmans|year=1991| url = https://books.google.com/?id=yJJ6bE0kt1YC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Old+Testament+theology#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn= 978-0-8028-0537-9}}
* {{Citation |last=Herion|first= Gary A|chapter= Covenant|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=Old%20Testament&f=false |editor-first =David Noel | editor-last = Freedman|title= Dictionary of the Bible|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2000|isbn = 978-90-5356-503-2}}
* {{Citation |last1=Jobes|first1=Karen H|last2=Silva|first2=Moises|authorlink2=Moisés Silva|title=Invitation to the Septuagint|publisher=Baker Academic|year= 2005}}
* {{Citation |last=Jones|first= Barry A|chapter= Canon of the Old Testament|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=Old%20Testament&f=false |editor-first =David Noel | editor-last = Freedman|title= Dictionary of the Bible|publisher= William B Eerdmans | year = 2000|isbn = 978-90-5356-503-2}}
* {{Citation |last=Juel|first=Donald|author-link=Donald Juel|chapter=Christ|url= https://books.google.com/?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Eerdmans+Dictionary+of+the+Bible#v=onepage&q&f=false | editor-first =David Noel | editor-last = Freedman|title= Dictionary of the Bible | publisher = William B Eerdmans |year=2000|isbn= 978-90-5356-503-2}}
* {{cite book |title= The Dead Sea Scrolls: A Very Short Introduction|edition= |last= Lim|first= Timothy H.|year= 2005|publisher= Oxford University Press |location= Oxford|isbn= }}
* {{Citation |last=McLay|first=Tim|title=The use of the Septuagint in New Testament research|publisher=Eerdmans|year= 2003|url = https://books.google.com/?id=41rx-TDIF9gC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Use+of+the+Septuagint+in+New+Testament+Research#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn = 978-0-8028-6091-0}}
* {{Citation |last=Miller|first=John W|title=How the Bible came to be|publisher=Paulist Press|year= 2004|url = https://books.google.com/?id=a4VnOt-jstoC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn= 978-0-8091-4183-8}}
* {{Citation |last=Miller|first=John W|title=Meet the prophets: a beginner's guide to the books of the biblical prophets|publisher=Paulist Press | year = 1987|url= https://books.google.com/?id=mHXM3wjVP-gC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Meet+the+prophets:+a+beginner%27s+guide+to+the+books+of+the+biblical+prophets#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn= 978-0-8091-2899-0}}
* {{Citation |last=Miller|first=Stephen R.|title=Daniel|publisher=B&H Publishing Group|year= 1994|url= https://books.google.com/?id=r3D6niEj9_sC&printsec=frontcover&dq=daniel,+steven+r.+miller#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn= 0-8054-0118-0}}
* {{Citation |last=Rogerson|first=John W|chapter=Deuteronomy|url= https://books.google.com/?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&pg=PA153&lpg=PA153&dq=Deuteronomy+John+W+Rogerson#v=onepage&q=Deuteronomy%20John%20W%20Rogerson&f=false |editor1-first = James DG | editor1-last = Dunn | editor2-first = John William | editor2-last = Rogerson|title= Commentary on the Bible|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2003|isbn= 978-0-8028-3711-0}}
* {{Citation |last= Sailhamer|first= John H.|title= The Pentateuch As Narrative|url = https://books.google.com/?id=KNb6GwAACAAJ&dq=john+sailhamer+the+pentateuch |publisher=Zondervan|year=1992|isbn= 0-310-57421-8}}
* {{Citation |last= Schniedewind|first= William M|authorlink=William Schniedewind|title= How the Bible Became a Book|url = https://books.google.com/?id=tCTVc8_2vVQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=How+the+Bible+Became+a+Book#v=onepage&q&f=false |publisher=Cambridge|year=2004|isbn= 978-0-521-53622-6}}
* {{Citation |last=Soggin|first=J. Alberto|authorlink=Alberto Soggin|title=Introduction to the Old Testament|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=1987|url = https://books.google.com/?id=mqSNsKXnHQgC&pg=PA40&dq=Soggin+Hebrew+bible#v=onepage&q=Soggin%20Hebrew%20bible&f=false |isbn= 978-0-664-22156-0}}
* {{Citation |last=Stuart|first=Douglas|title=Hosea-Jonah|publisher=Thomas Nelson|year= 1987|url = http://smile.amazon.com/Word-Biblical-Commentary-Vol-Hosea-Jonah/dp/0849902304/ref=sr_1_2?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1460638022&sr=1-2&keywords=hosea-jonah |isbn= 0-8499-0230-4}}
* {{Citation |last=Würthwein|first=Ernst|title=The text of the Old Testament: an introduction to the Biblia Hebraica|publisher= William B Eerdmans | year = 1995 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=FSNKSBObCYwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=W%C3%BCrthwein+The+Text+of+the+Old+Testament#v=onepage&q&f=false | isbn = 978-0-8028-0788-5}}
== Further reading ==
* [[Bernhard Anderson|Anderson, Bernhard]]. ''Understanding the Old Testament''. {{ISBN|0-13-948399-3}}
* [[Greg Bahnsen|Bahnsen, Greg]], et al., ''Five Views on Law and Gospel'' (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993).
* {{Citation | last1 = Berkowitz | first1 = Ariel | last2 = Berkowitz | first2 = D'vorah | title = Torah Rediscovered | edition = 4th | publisher = Shoreshim | year = 2004 | isbn = 0-9752914-0-8}}.
* {{Citation | last = Dever | first = William G. | authorlink = William G. Dever | title = Who Were the Early Israelites? | publisher = William B Eerdmans | place = Grand Rapids, Michigan | year = 2003 | isbn = 0-8028-0975-8}}.
* {{Citation | first = Gerhard | last = von Rad | author-link = Gerhard von Rad | title = Theologie des Alten Testaments | language = German |trans-title=Theology of the Old Testament | volume = Band 1–2 | place = Munich | publisher = Auflage | year = 1982–1984}}.
* {{Citation | last1 = Hill | first1 = Andrew | first2 = John | last2 = Walton | title = A Survey of the Old Testament | edition = 2nd | place = Grand Rapids | publisher = Zondervan | year = 2000 | isbn = 0-310-22903-0}}.
* {{Citation | last = Kuntz | first = John Kenneth | title = The People of Ancient Israel: an introduction to Old Testament Literature, History, and Thought | publisher = Harper & Row | year = 1974 | isbn = 0-06-043822-3}}.
* {{Citation | last = Lancaster | first = D Thomas | title = Restoration: Returning the Torah of God to the Disciples of Jesus | place = Littleton \ |publisher=First Fruits of Zion | year = 2005}}.
* {{Citation | last = Papadaki-Oekland | first = Stella | title = Byzantine Illuminated Manuscripts of the Book of Job | isbn = 978-2-503-53232-5}}.
* {{Citation | last = Rouvière | first = Jean-Marc | title = Brèves méditations sur la Création du monde | language = French |trans-title=Brief meditations on the creation of the World | publisher = L'Harmattan | place = Paris | year = 2006}}.
* {{Citation | last = Salibi | first = Kamal | authorlink = Kamal Salibi | title = The Bible Came from Arabia | place = London | publisher = Jonathan Cape | year = 1985 | isbn = 0-224-02830-8}}.
* {{Citation | last = Schmid | first = Konrad | title = The Old Testament: A Literary History | publisher = Fortress | place = Minneapolis | year = 2012 | isbn = 978-0-8006-9775-4}}.
* {{Citation | last1 = Silberman | first1 = Neil A | authorlink1 = Neil Asher Silberman | title = The Bible Unearthed | publisher = Simon & Schuster | place = New York | year = 2003 | isbn = 0-684-86912-8 | format = hardback|display-authors=etal}}, {{ISBN|0-684-86913-6}} (paperback).
* {{Citation | last = Sprinkle | first = Joseph ‘Joe’ M | title = Biblical Law and Its Relevance: A Christian Understanding and Ethical Application for Today of the Mosaic Regulations | place = Lanham, Maryland | publisher = University Press of America | year = 2006 | isbn = 0-7618-3371-4 | format = clothbound}} and {{ISBN|0-7618-3372-2}} (paperback).
== External links ==
* {{Citation | url = http://www.biblegateway.com/ | title = Bible gateway}}. Full texts of the Old (and New) Testaments including the full Roman and Orthodox Catholic canons
* {{Citation | url = http://earlyjewishwritings.com/ | title = Early Jewish Writings}} - Tanakh
* {{Citation | url = http://www.lafeuilledolivier.com/Ecritures/OT.htm | title = Écritures | contribution = Old Testament | publisher = La feuille d'Olivier | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20101207051208/http://lafeuilledolivier.com/Ecritures/OT.htm | archivedate = 2010-12-07 | df = }} Protestant Old Testament on a single page
* {{Citation | url = http://www.tyndale.ca/seminary/mtsmodular/reading-rooms/oldt | contribution = Old Testament | title = Reading Room | publisher = Tyndale Seminary | place = [[Canada|CA]]}}. Extensive online OT resources (incl. commentaries)
* {{Citation | url = https://oyc.yale.edu/NODE/241 | title = Introduction to the Old Testament (Hebrew Bible) | publisher = Yale University }}
* {{cite web | title=Old Testament | publisher= The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. | website=[[Encyclopedia.com]] | url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/bible/old-testament/old-testament }}
* {{Citation | url = http://www.bible.x10host.com/ | title = Bible | publisher = X10 host}}: Old Testament stories and commentary
* {{Citation | url = http://www.tanakhml.org/ | title = Tanakh ML | type = parallel Bible}} – [[Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia]] and the [[King James Version]]
{{Christianity footer}}
{{Books of the Bible}}
{{Ancient Near East}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Christian terminology]]
[[Category:Old Testament| ]]
[[Category:Rastafarian texts]]
{{Bible-related |CB}}
{{Christianity|state=collapsed}}
The '''Old Testament''' (abbreviated '''OT''') is the first part of [[Bible#Christian Bibles|Christian Bibles]], based primarily upon the [[Hebrew Bible]] (or Tanakh), a collection of ancient religious writings by the [[Israelites]]{{Sfn | Jones | 2001 | p = 215}} which is the sacred [[Authorship of the Bible|Word of God]].<ref>Preface to the [[New Revised Standard Version]] Anglicised Edition</ref> The second part of the Christian Bible is the [[New Testament]].
The [[Books of the Bible|books that comprise the Old Testament canon]], as well as their order and names, differ between [[Christian denominations]]. The [[Catholic Church|Catholic]] canon comprises 46 books, and the canons of the [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] and [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental Orthodox]] Churches comprise up to 51 books{{Sfn | Barton | 2001 | p = 3}} and the most common [[Protestantism|Protestant]] canon comprises 39 books. The 39 books in common to all the Christian canons correspond to the 24 books of the Tanakh, with some differences of order, and there are some differences in text. The additional number reflects the splitting of several texts ([[Books of Kings|Kings]], [[Books of Samuel|Samuel]] and [[Books of Chronicles|Chronicles]], [[Ezra–Nehemiah]] and the minor prophets) into separate books in Christian bibles. The books which are part of a Christian Old Testament but which are not part of the Hebrew canon are sometimes described as [[Deuterocanonical books|deuterocanonical]]. In general, [[Protestant Bible]]s do not include the deuterocanonical books in their canon, but some versions of [[Anglican]] and [[Lutheran]] bibles place such books in a separate section called [[Biblical apocrypha|Apocrypha]]. These extra books are ultimately derived from the earlier [[Greek Septuagint]] collection of the Hebrew scriptures and are also Jewish in origin. Some are also contained in the [[Dead Sea Scrolls]].
The Old Testament consists of many distinct books [[Authorship of the Bible|by various authors]] produced over a period of centuries.<ref name="Lim 2005 41">{{cite book |title= The Dead Sea Scrolls: A Very Short Introduction|edition= |last= Lim|first= Timothy H.|year= 2005|publisher= Oxford University Press |location= Oxford|isbn= |page= 41}}</ref> Christians traditionally divide the Old Testament into four sections: (1) the first five books or Pentateuch ([[Torah]]); (2) the history books telling the history of the [[Israelite]]s, from their [[conquest of Canaan]] to their [[Babylonian exile|defeat and exile in Babylon]]; (3) the poetic and "[[Sapiential Books|Wisdom books]]" dealing, in various forms, with questions of good and evil in the world; and (4) the books of the biblical prophets, warning of the consequences of turning away from God.
== Content ==
{{Main|Biblical canon|Development of the Old Testament canon}}
The Old Testament contains 39 (Protestant), 46 (Catholic), or more (Orthodox and other) books, divided, very broadly, into the [[Torah|Pentateuch (Torah)]], the historical books, the [[Sapiential Books|"wisdom" books]] and the prophets.{{Sfn | Boadt | 1984 | pp = 11, 15–16}}
=== Table ===
The table uses the spellings and names present in modern editions of the Christian Bible, such as the Catholic [[New American Bible Revised Edition]] and the Protestant [[Revised Standard Version]] and [[English Standard Version]]. The spelling and names in both the 1609–10 [[Douay-Rheims Bible|Douay]] Old Testament (and in the 1582 Rheims New Testament) and the 1749 revision by [[Bishop Challoner]] (the edition currently in print used by many Catholics, and the source of traditional Catholic spellings in English) and in the Septuagint differ from those spellings and names used in modern editions which are derived from the Hebrew Masoretic text.{{Efn | Generally due to derivation from transliterations of names used in the Latin [[Vulgate]] in the case of Catholicism, and from transliterations of the Greek Septuagint in the case of the Orthodox (as opposed to derivation of translations, instead of transliterations, of Hebrew titles) such [[Ecclesiasticus]] (DRC) instead of [[Sirach]] (LXX) or [[Ben Sira]] (Hebrew), [[Paralipomenon]] (Greek, meaning "things omitted") instead of [[Books of Chronicles|Chronicles]], Sophonias instead of [[Zephaniah]], Noe instead of [[Noah]], Henoch instead of [[Enoch (ancestor of Noah)|Enoch]], [[Messias]] instead of [[Messiah]], Sion instead of [[Zion]], etc.}}
For the [[Eastern / Greek Orthodox Bible|Orthodox canon]], Septuagint titles are provided in parentheses when these differ from those editions. For the Catholic canon, the Douaic titles are provided in parentheses when these differ from those editions. Likewise, the King James Version references some of these books by the traditional spelling when referring to them in the New Testament, such as "Esaias" (for Isaiah).
In the spirit of [[ecumenism]] more recent [[Catholic Bible#Catholic English versions|Catholic translations]] (e.g. the [[New American Bible]], [[Jerusalem Bible]], and ecumenical translations used by Catholics, such as the [[Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition]]) use the same "standardized" (King James Version) spellings and names as [[Protestant Bible]]s (e.g. 1 Chronicles as opposed to the Douaic 1 Paralipomenon, 1–2 Samuel and 1–2 Kings instead of 1–4 Kings) in those books which are universally considered canonical, the [[Protocanonical books|protocanonicals]].
The [[Talmud]] (the Jewish commentary on the scriptures) in [[Bava Batra]] 14b gives a different order for the books in ''Nevi'im'' and ''Ketuvim''. This order is also cited in [[Mishneh Torah]] Hilchot [[Sefer (Hebrew)|Sefer]] [[Torah]] 7:15. The order of the books of the Torah is universal through all denominations of Judaism and Christianity.
The disputed books, included in one canon but not in others, are often called the [[Biblical apocrypha]], a term that is sometimes used specifically to describe the books in the Catholic and Orthodox canons that are absent from the Jewish Masoretic Text and most modern [[Protestant]] Bibles. Catholics, following the [[Canon of Trent]] (1546), describe these books as deuterocanonical, while Greek Orthodox Christians, following the [[Synod of Jerusalem (1672)]], use the traditional name of ''[[anagignoskomena]]'', meaning "that which is to be read." They are present in a few historic Protestant versions; the German [[Luther Bible]] included such books, as did the English [[Authorized King James Version|1611 King James Version]].{{Efn | The foundational [[Thirty-Nine Articles]] of [[Anglicanism]], in [[:s:Thirty-Nine Articles|Article VI]], asserts these disputed books are not used "to establish any doctrine", but "read for example of life." Although the Biblical apocrypha are still used in [[Anglican Liturgy]],<ref>{{Citation | format = PDF | publisher = Orthodox Anglican | quote = Two of the hymns used in the American Prayer Book office of Morning Prayer, the [[Benedictus (Song of Zechariah)|Benedictus es]] and [[Benedicite]], are taken from the Apocrypha. One of the offertory sentences in Holy Communion comes from an apocryphal book (Tob. 4: 8–9). Lessons from the Apocrypha are regularly appointed to be read in the daily, Sunday, and special services of Morning and Evening Prayer. There are altogether 111 such lessons in the latest revised American Prayer Book Lectionary [Books used are: II Esdras, Tobit, Wisdom, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, Three Holy Children, and I Maccabees.] | url = http://orthodoxanglican.net/downloads/apocrypha.pdf | title = The Apocrypha, Bridge of the Testaments | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090205074449/http://orthodoxanglican.net/downloads/apocrypha.pdf | archivedate = 2009-02-05 | df = }}</ref> the modern trend is to not even print the Old Testament apocrypha in editions of Anglican-used Bibles.}}
Empty table cells indicate that a book is absent from that canon.
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! ''[[Tanakh]]''<br> ([[Hebrew Bible]])<br> (24 books){{Efn | The 24 books of the Hebrew Bible are the same as the 39 books of the Protestant Old Testament, only divided and ordered differently: the books of the Minor Prophets are in Christian Bibles twelve different books, and in Hebrew Bibles, one book called "The Twelve". Likewise, Christian Bibles divide the Books of Kingdoms into four books, either 1–2 Samuel and 1–2 Kings or 1–4 Kings: Jewish Bibles divide these into two books. The Jews likewise keep 1–2 Chronicles/Paralipomenon as one book. Ezra and Nehemiah are likewise combined in the Jewish Bible, as they are in many Orthodox Bibles, instead of divided into two books, as per the Catholic and Protestant tradition.}}<br>Books in '''bold''' are part of the ''[[Ketuvim]]''
! [[Protestant]]<br>Old Testament<br> (39 books)
! [[Catholic Church|Catholic]]<br>Old Testament<br> (46 books)
! style="text-align:center;"| [[Eastern Orthodox]]<br>Old Testament<br> (50 books)
! Original language
|- style="text-align:center;"
| | ''[[Torah]]''
| colspan="3" style="background:#fff;"| <div style="text-align:center;">''Pentateuch'' or the ''Five Books of Moses''</div>
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Genesis|Bereishit]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]]
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Exodus|Shemot]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]]
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Leviticus|Vayikra]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Leviticus|Leviticus]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Leviticus|Leviticus]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Leviticus|Leviticus]]
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Numbers|Bamidbar]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Book of Numbers|Numbers]]
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| style="background:#ccf; text-align:center; vertical-align:top;"| [[Book of Deuteronomy|Devarim]]
| style="background:#ccf; text-align:center; vertical-align:top;"| [[Book of Deuteronomy|Deuteronomy]]
| style="background:#ccf; text-align:center; vertical-align:top;"| [[Book of Deuteronomy|Deuteronomy]]
| style="background:#ccf; text-align:center; vertical-align:top;"| [[Book of Deuteronomy|Deuteronomy]]
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| | ''[[Nevi'im]] (Prophets)''
| colspan="3" style="background:#fff;"| <div style="text-align:center;">''[[Historical books]]''</div>
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Joshua|Yehoshua]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Joshua|Joshua]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Joshua|Joshua (Josue)]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Joshua|Joshua (Iesous)]]
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Judges|Shofetim]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Judges|Judges]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Judges|Judges]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Judges|Judges]]
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#9f9;"| '''[[Book of Ruth|Rut (Ruth)]]'''<ref name="ketuvim" group="lower-alpha">This book is part of the ''[[Ketuvim]]'', the third section of the Jewish canon. They have a different order in Jewish canon than in Christian canon.</ref>
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Ruth|Ruth]]
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Samuel|Shemuel]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel (1 Kings)]]<ref name="Kings" group="lower-alpha">The books of Samuel and Kings are often called First through Fourth Kings in the Catholic tradition, much like the Orthodox.</ref>
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Samuel|1 Samuel (1 Kingdoms)]]<ref name="septuagint" group="lower-alpha">Names in parentheses are the Septuagint names and are often used by the Orthodox Christians.</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Samuel|2 Samuel]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Samuel|2 Samuel (2 Kings)]]<ref name="Kings" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Samuel|2 Samuel (2 Kingdoms)]]<ref name="septuagint" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Kings|Melakhim]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Kings|1 Kings]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Kings|1 Kings (3 Kings)]]<ref name="Kings" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Kings|1 Kings (3 Kingdoms)]]<ref name="septuagint" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Kings|2 Kings]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Kings|2 Kings (4 Kings)]]<ref name="Kings" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Kings|2 Kings (4 Kingdoms)]]<ref name="septuagint" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#9f9;"| '''[[Books of Chronicles|Divrei Hayamim (Chronicles)]]'''<ref name="ketuvim" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles (1 Paralipomenon)]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Chronicles|1 Chronicles (1 Paralipomenon)]]
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles (2 Paraleipomenon)]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Books of Chronicles|2 Chronicles (2 Paraleipomenon)]]
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
|
|
|
| style="background:#fc9; text-align:center; vertical-align:top;"| [[1 Esdras]]<ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha">One of 11 deuterocanonical books in the [[Russian Synodal Bible]].</ref><ref name="RSB 1 esdras" group="lower-alpha">2 Esdras in the [[Russian Synodal Bible]].</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| rowspan="2" style="text-align:center; background:#9f9;"| '''[[Ezra–Nehemiah]]'''<ref name="ketuvim" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Ezra|Ezra]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Ezra|Ezra (1 Esdras)]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Ezra|Ezra (2 Esdras)]]<ref name="septuagint" group="lower-alpha" /><ref name="ezra" group="lower-alpha">Some Eastern Orthodox churches follow the [[Septuagint]] and Hebrew Bibles by considering the books of [[Ezra and Nehemiah]] as one book.</ref><ref name="RSB 2 esdras" group="lower-alpha">1 Esdras in the [[Russian Synodal Bible]].</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew and Aramaic
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah (2 Esdras)]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Nehemiah|Nehemiah (2 Esdras)]]<ref name="septuagint" group="lower-alpha" /><ref name="ezra" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" |
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Tobit|Tobit (Tobias)]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Tobit|Tobit]]<ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center;"| Aramaic (and Hebrew?)
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Judith|Judith]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Judith|Judith]]<ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#9f9;"| '''[[Book of Esther|Esther]]'''<ref name="ketuvim" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Esther|Esther]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Esther|Esther]]<ref name="esther" group="lower-alpha">The Catholic and Orthodox Book of Esther includes 103 verses not in the Protestant Book of Esther.</ref>
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Esther|Esther]]<ref name="esther" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| rowspan="5" |
| rowspan="5" |
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[1 Maccabees]] (1 Machabees)<ref name="maccabees" group="lower-alpha">The [[Latin Vulgate]], [[Douay-Rheims]], and [[Revised Standard Version Catholic Edition]] place First and Second Maccabees after Malachi; other Catholic translations place them after Esther.</ref>
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[1 Maccabees]]<ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#fc9;"| [[2 Maccabees]] (2 Machabees)<ref name="maccabees" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="background:#fc9;"| [[2 Maccabees]]<ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha" />
| | Greek
|-
| rowspan="3" |
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[3 Maccabees]]<ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center;"| Greek
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[2 Esdras|3 Esdras]]<ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center;"| Greek?
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="text-align:center;"| [[4 Maccabees]]{{Efn | In Greek Bibles, 4 Maccabees is found in the appendix.}}
| style="text-align:center;"| Greek
|-
| style="text-align:center;"| ''[[Ketuvim]] (Writings)''
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"| ''[[Sapiential books|Wisdom books]]''
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#9f9;"| '''[[Book of Job|Iyov (Job)]]'''<ref name="ketuvim" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center; background:#9f9;"| [[Book of Job|Job]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#9f9;"| [[Book of Job|Job]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#9f9;"| [[Book of Job|Job]]
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#9f9;"| '''[[Psalms|Tehillim (Psalms)]]'''<ref name="ketuvim" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="background:#9f9;"| [[Psalms]]
| style="background:#9f9;"| [[Psalms]]
| style="background:#9f9;"| [[Psalms]]<ref name="psalms" group="lower-alpha">Eastern Orthodox churches include [[Psalm 151]] and the [[Prayer of Manasseh]], not present in all canons.</ref>
| | Hebrew
|-
|
|
|
| style="text-align:center;"| [[Prayer of Manasseh]]<ref name="RSB manasseh" group="lower-alpha">Part of 2 Paralipomenon in the [[Russian Synodal Bible]].</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"| Greek
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#9f9;"| '''[[Book of Proverbs|Mishlei (Proverbs)]]'''<ref name="ketuvim" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center; background:#9f9;"| [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#9f9;"| [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#9f9;"| [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]]
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
<!-- At least, that's what I think Притчи is, but I should check -->
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#9f9;"| '''[[Ecclesiastes|Qoheleth (Ecclesiastes)]]'''<ref name="ketuvim" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="background:#9f9;"| [[Ecclesiastes]]
| style="background:#9f9;"| [[Ecclesiastes]]
| style="background:#9f9;"| [[Ecclesiastes]]
| | Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#9f9;"| '''[[Song of Songs|Shir Hashirim (Song of Songs)]]'''<ref name="ketuvim" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="background:#9f9;"| [[Song of Solomon]]
| style="background:#9f9;"| [[Song of Songs]] (Canticle of Canticles)
| style="background:#9f9;"| [[Song of Songs]] (Aisma Aismaton)
| | Hebrew
|-
| rowspan="2" |
| rowspan="2" |
| style="text-align:center; background:#9f9;"| [[Book of Wisdom|Wisdom]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#9f9;"| [[Book of Wisdom|Wisdom]]<ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center;"| Greek
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#9f9;"| [[Sirach]] (Ecclesiasticus)
| style="background:#9f9;"| [[Sirach]]<ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha" />
| | Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| ''[[Nevi'im]] (Latter Prophets)''
| colspan="3"| ''[[Major prophet]]s''
|-
| style="background:#fc9; text-align:center; vertical-align:top;"| [[Book of Isaiah|Yeshayahu]]
| style="background:#f9f; text-align:center; vertical-align:top;"| [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]]
| style="background:#f9f; text-align:center; vertical-align:top;"| [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah (Isaias)]]
| style="background:#f9f; text-align:center; vertical-align:top;"| [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]]
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Jeremiah|Yirmeyahu]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#f9f;"| [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#f9f;"| [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah (Jeremias)]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#f9f;"| [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]]
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#9f9;"| '''[[Book of Lamentations|Eikhah (Lamentations)]]'''<ref name="ketuvim" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center; background:#f9f;"| [[Book of Lamentations|Lamentations]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#f9f;"| [[Book of Lamentations|Lamentations]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#f9f;"| [[Book of Lamentations|Lamentations]]
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew
|-
| rowspan=2 |
| rowspan=2 |
| rowspan=2 style="text-align:center; background:#f9f;"| [[Book of Baruch|Baruch]]<ref name="baruch" group="lower-alpha">In Catholic Bibles, Baruch includes a sixth chapter called the [[Letter of Jeremiah]]. Baruch is not in the Protestant Bible or the Tanakh.</ref>
| style="text-align:center; background:#f9f;"| [[Book of Baruch|Baruch]]<ref name="baruch" group="lower-alpha" /><ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="text-align:center;"| Hebrew<ref>{{Citation | title=Baruch |work = Encyclopædia Britannica | year = 1911}}</ref>
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#f9f;"| [[Letter of Jeremiah]]{{Efn | Eastern Orthodox Bibles have the books of Baruch and the Letter of Jeremiah separate.}}<ref name="russian synodal" group="lower-alpha" />
| | Greek (majority view){{Efn | Hebrew (minority view); see [[Letter of Jeremiah]] for details.}}
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#fc9;"| [[Book of Ezekiel|Yekhezqel]]
| style="background:#f9f;"| [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]]
| style="background:#f9f;"| [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel (Ezechiel)]]
| style="background:#f9f;"| [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]]
| | Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#9f9;"| '''[[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]'''<ref name="ketuvim" group="lower-alpha" />
| style="background:#f9f;"| [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]
| style="background:#f9f;"| [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]<ref name="daniel" group="lower-alpha">In Catholic and Orthodox Bibles, Daniel includes three sections not included in Protestant Bibles. [[The Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children]] are included between Daniel 3:23–24. [[Susanna (Book of Daniel)|Susanna]] is included as Daniel 13. [[Bel and the Dragon]] is included as Daniel 14. These are not in the Protestant Old Testament.</ref>
| style="background:#f9f;"| [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]]<ref name="daniel" group="lower-alpha" />
| | Hebrew and Aramaic
|- style="text-align:center;"
|
| colspan="3"| ''[[Twelve Minor Prophets]]''
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#fc9;" rowspan="12"| [[Twelve Minor Prophets|The Twelve]] <br>or <br>''Trei Asar''
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Hosea|Hosea (Osee)]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Hosea|Hosea]]
| Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Joel|Joel]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Joel|Joel]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Joel|Joel]]
| Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Amos|Amos]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Amos|Amos]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Amos|Amos]]
| Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Obadiah|Obadiah]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Obadiah|Obadiah (Abdias)]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Obadiah|Obadiah]]
| Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Jonah|Jonah (Jonas)]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]]
| Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Micah|Micah]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Micah|Micah (Michaeas)]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Micah|Micah]]
| Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Nahum|Nahum]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Nahum|Nahum]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Nahum|Nahum]]
| Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk (Habacuc)]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Habakkuk|Habakkuk]]
| Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah (Sophonias)]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Zephaniah|Zephaniah]]
| Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Haggai|Haggai]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Haggai|Haggai (Aggaeus)]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Haggai|Haggai]]
| Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah (Zacharias)]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Zechariah|Zechariah]]
| Hebrew
|- style="text-align:center;"
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Malachi|Malachi]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Malachi|Malachi (Malachias)]]
| style="background:#ffc;"| [[Book of Malachi|Malachi]]
| Hebrew
|}<references group=T />
Several of the books in the Eastern Orthodox canon are also found in the appendix to the Latin Vulgate, formerly the official bible of the Roman Catholic Church.
{| class="wikitable"
| colspan="2" style="background:#fff;"| <div style="text-align:center;">''Books in the Appendix to the [[Vulgate]] Bible''</div>
|-
! Name in Vulgate<br>
! Name in Eastern Orthodox use
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[1 Esdras|3 Esdras]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[1 Esdras]]
|- style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"
| | [[2 Esdras|4 Esdras]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"|
|- style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"
| | [[Prayer of Manasseh]]
| | [[Prayer of Manasseh]]
|-
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Psalm 151|Psalm of David when he slew Goliath (Psalm 151)]]
| style="text-align:center; background:#ccf;"| [[Psalm 151]]
|}<references group=T />
== Composition ==
The first five books – [[Book of Genesis|Genesis]], [[book of Exodus|Exodus]], [[Leviticus]], [[book of Numbers]] and [[Deuteronomy]] – reached their present form in the [[Yehud Medinata|Persian period (538–332 BC)]], and their authors were the elite of exilic returnees who controlled the [[Second Temple|Temple at that time]].{{Sfn | Blenkinsopp | 1998 | p = 184}} The books of [[book of Joshua|Joshua]], [[book of Judges|Judges]], [[books of Samuel|Samuel]] and [[books of Kings|Kings]] follow, forming a history of Israel from the [[Conquest of Canaan]] to the [[Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)|Siege of Jerusalem c. 587 BC]]. There is a broad consensus among scholars that these originated as a single work (the so-called "[[Deuteronomistic history]]") during the [[Babylonian exile]] of the 6th century BC.{{Sfn | Rogerson | 2003 | pp = 153–54}}
The two [[Books of Chronicles]] cover much the same material as the Pentateuch and Deuteronomistic history and probably date from the 4th century BC.{{Sfn | Coggins | 2003 | p = 282}} Chronicles, and [[Ezra–Nehemiah]], were probably finished during the 3rd century BC.{{Sfn | Grabbe | 2003 | pp = 213–14}} Catholic and Orthodox Old Testaments contain two (Catholic Old Testament) to four (Orthodox) [[Books of Maccabees]], written in the 2nd and 1st centuries BC.
These history books make up around half the total content of the Old Testament. Of the remainder, the books of the various prophets – [[Book of Isaiah|Isaiah]], [[Book of Jeremiah|Jeremiah]], [[Book of Ezekiel|Ezekiel]], [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] and the twelve "[[minor prophets]]" – were written between the 8th and 6th centuries BC, with the exceptions of [[Book of Jonah|Jonah]] and [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]], which were written much later.{{Sfn | Miller | 1987 | pp = 10–11}} The "wisdom" books – [[Book of Job|Job]], [[Book of Proverbs|Proverbs]], [[Book of Ecclesiastes|Ecclesiastes]], [[Book of Psalms|Psalms]], [[Book of Song of Solomon|Song of Solomon]] – have various dates: Proverbs possibly was completed by the Hellenistic time (332-198 BC), though containing much older material as well; Job completed by the 6th century BC; Ecclesiastes by the 3rd century BC.{{Sfn | Crenshaw | 2010 | p = 5}}
== Themes ==
God is consistently depicted as the one who created the world. Although the God of the Old Testament is not consistently presented as [[monotheism|the only God who exists]], he is always depicted as [[Monolatrism|the only God whom Israel is to worship]], or the one "true God", that only [[Yahweh]] is Almighty, and both Jews and Christians have always interpreted the Bible (both the "Old" and "New" Testaments) as an affirmation of the oneness of Almighty God.{{Sfn | Barton | 2001 | p = 9}}
The Old Testament stresses the special relationship between God and his [[chosen people]], Israel, but includes instructions for [[proselyte]]s as well. This relationship is expressed in the [[biblical covenant]] (contract) between the two, received by Moses. The law codes in books such as [[Book of Exodus|Exodus]] and especially [[Deuteronomy]] are the terms of the contract: Israel swears faithfulness to [[Tetragrammaton|God]], and God swears to be Israel's special protector and supporter.{{Sfn | Barton | 2001 | p = 9}}
Further themes in the Old Testament include [[salvation]], [[Redemption (theology)|redemption]], [[divine judgment]], obedience and disobedience, [[faith]] and faithfulness, among others. Throughout there is a strong emphasis on [[ethics]] and [[ritual purity]], both of which God demands, although some of the prophets and wisdom writers seem to question this, arguing that God demands [[social justice]] above purity, and perhaps does not even care about purity at all. The Old Testament's moral code enjoins fairness, intervention on behalf of the vulnerable, and the duty of those in power to administer justice righteously. It forbids murder, bribery and corruption, deceitful trading, and many [[porneia|sexual misdemeanors]]. All morality is traced back to God, who is the source of all goodness.{{Sfn | Barton | 2001 | p = 10}}
The [[problem of evil]] plays a large part in the Old Testament. The problem the Old Testament authors faced was that a good God must have had just reason for bringing disaster (meaning notably, but not only, the [[Babylonian exile]]) upon his people. The theme is played out, with many variations, in books as different as the histories of Kings and Chronicles, the prophets like Ezekiel and Jeremiah, and in the wisdom books like Job and Ecclesiastes.{{Sfn | Barton | 2001 | p = 10}}
== Formation ==
{{Main|Books of the Bible|Biblical canon}}
{{See also|Development of the Hebrew Bible canon|Development of the Old Testament canon|Septuagint|Books of the Latin Vulgate}}
[[File:Texts of the OT.svg|thumb|upright=2.05|The interrelationship between various significant ancient manuscripts of the Old Testament, according to the ''[[Encyclopaedia Biblica]]'' (1903). Some manuscripts are identified by their [[Scribal abbreviation|siglum]]. LXX here denotes the original Septuagint.]]
The process by which scriptures became canons and Bibles was a long one, and its complexities account for the many different Old Testaments which exist today. Timothy H. Lim, a professor of Hebrew Bible and Second Temple Judaism at the [[University of Edinburgh]], identifies the Old Testament as "a collection of authoritative texts of apparently divine origin that went through a human process of writing and editing."<ref name="Lim 2005 41" /> He states that it is not a magical book, nor was it literally written by [[God in Judaism|God]] and passed to mankind. By about the 5th century BC Jews saw the five books of the [[Torah]] (the Old Testament Pentateuch) as having authoritative status; by the 2nd century BC the Prophets had a similar status, although without quite the same level of respect as the Torah; beyond that, the Jewish scriptures were fluid, with different groups seeing authority in different books.{{Sfn | Brettler | 2005 | p = 274}}
=== Greek ===
{{see also|Septuagint|Masoretic Text}}
Hebrew texts commenced to be translated into Greek in [[Alexandria]] in about 280 and continued until about 130 BC.{{Sfn | Gentry | 2008 | p = 302}} These early Greek translations {{ndash}} supposedly commissioned by [[Ptolemy II|Ptolemy Philadelphus]] {{ndash}} were called the [[Septuagint]] (Latin: "Seventy") from the supposed number of translators involved (hence its abbreviation "[[LXX]]"). This Septuagint remains the basis of the Old Testament in the [[Eastern Orthodoxy|Eastern Orthodox Church]].{{Sfn | Würthwein | 1995}}
It varies in many places from the [[Masoretic Text]] and includes numerous books no longer considered canonical in some traditions: 1 and 2 [[Esdras]], [[Judith]], [[Book of Tobit|Tobit]], 3 and 4 [[Books of the Maccabees|Maccabees]], the [[Book of Wisdom]], [[Sirach]], and [[Book of Baruch|Baruch]].{{Sfn | Jones | 2001 | p = 216}} Early modern [[Biblical criticism]] typically explained these variations as intentional or ignorant corruptions by the Alexandrian scholars, but most recent scholarship holds it is simply based on early source texts differing from those later used by the [[Masoretes]] in their work.
The Septuagint was originally used by [[Hellenization|Hellenized]] Jews whose knowledge of [[Koine Greek|Greek]] was better than Hebrew. But the texts came to be used predominantly by gentile converts to Christianity and by the early Church as its scripture, Greek being the ''lingua franca'' of the early Church. The three most acclaimed early interpreters were [[Aquila of Sinope]], [[Symmachus the Ebionite]], and [[Theodotion]]; in his [[Hexapla]], [[Origen]] placed his edition of the Hebrew text beside [[Secunda (Hexapla)|its transcription in Greek letters]] and four parallel translations: Aquila's, Symmachus's, the Septuagint's, and Theodotion's. The so-called "fifth" and "sixth editions" were two other Greek translations supposedly miraculously discovered by students outside the towns of [[Jericho]] and [[Nicopolis]]: these were added to Origen's Octapla.<ref>Cave, William. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=-L5UAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA406 A complete history of the lives, acts, and martyrdoms of the holy apostles, and the two evangelists, St. Mark and Luke]'', Vol. II. Wiatt (Philadelphia), 1810. Retrieved 6 Feb 2013.</ref>
In 331, [[Constantine I and Christianity|Constantine I]] commissioned [[Eusebius]] to deliver [[Fifty Bibles of Constantine|fifty Bibles]] for the [[Church of Constantinople]]. [[Athanasius]]<ref>''Apol. Const. 4''</ref> recorded [[Early centers of Christianity#Alexandria|Alexandrian]] scribes around 340 preparing Bibles for [[Constans]]. Little else is known, though there is plenty of speculation. For example, it is speculated that this may have provided motivation for canon lists, and that [[Codex Vaticanus]] and [[Codex Sinaiticus]] are examples of these Bibles. Together with the [[Peshitta]] and [[Codex Alexandrinus]], these are the earliest extant Christian Bibles.<ref>''The Canon Debate'', pp. 414–15, for the entire paragraph</ref> There is no evidence among the [[First Council of Nicaea#The biblical canon|canons of the First Council of Nicaea]] of any determination on the canon, however, [[Jerome]] (347–420), in his ''Prologue to Judith'', makes the claim that the [[Book of Judith]] was "found by the Nicene Council to have been counted among the number of the Sacred Scriptures".<ref>{{CathEncy|wstitle=Book of Judith}} Canonicity: "..."the Synod of Nicaea is said to have accounted it as Sacred Scripture" (Praef. in Lib.). It is true that no such declaration is to be found in the Canons of Nicaea, and it is uncertain whether St. Jerome is referring to the use made of the book in the discussions of the council, or whether he was misled by some spurious canons attributed to that council".</ref>
=== Latin ===
{{see also|Deuterocanonical books|Vulgate}}
In [[Western Christianity]] or Christianity in the [[Western Roman Empire|Western half of the Roman Empire]], Latin had displaced Greek as the common language of the early Christians, and in 382 AD [[Pope Damasus I]] commissioned [[Jerome]], the leading scholar of the day, to produce an updated Latin bible to replace the [[Vetus Latina]], which was a Latin translation of the Septuagint. Jerome's work, called the [[Vulgate]], was a direct translation from Hebrew, since he argued for the superiority of [[Development of the Hebrew Bible canon|the Hebrew texts]] in correcting the Septuagint on both philological and theological grounds.<ref>Rebenich, S., ''Jerome'' (Routledge, 2013), p. 58. {{ISBN|9781134638444}}</ref> His Vulgate Old Testament became the standard bible used in the Western Church, specifically as the [[Sixto-Clementine Vulgate]], while the [[Eastern Christianity|Churches in the East]] continued, and still continue, to use the Septuagint.{{Sfn | Würthwein | 1995 | pp = 91–99}}
Jerome, however, in the [[Vulgate#Prologues|Vulgate's prologues]] describes some portions of books in the Septuagint not found in the Hebrew Bible as being non-[[biblical canon|canonical]] (he called them ''[[biblical apocrypha|apocrypha]]'');<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/bible/prologi.shtml|title=The Bible}}</ref> for ''[[Book of Baruch|Baruch]]'', he mentions by name in his ''Prologue to Jeremiah'' and notes that it is neither read nor held among the Hebrews, but does not explicitly call it apocryphal or "not in the canon".<ref>{{citation |url=http://www.bombaxo.com/blog/?p=233 |title=Jerome's Prologue to Jeremiah |author=Kevin P. Edgecomb}}</ref> The [[Synod of Hippo]] (in 393), followed by the [[Council of Carthage (397)]] and the [[Council of Carthage (419)]], may be the first council that explicitly accepted the first canon which includes the books that did not appear in the [[Hebrew Bible]];<ref>McDonald & Sanders, editors of ''The Canon Debate'', 2002, chapter 5: ''The Septuagint: The Bible of Hellenistic Judaism'' by Albert C. Sundberg Jr., page 72, Appendix D-2, note 19.</ref> the councils were under significant influence of [[Augustine of Hippo]], who regarded the canon as already closed.<ref>Everett Ferguson, "Factors leading to the Selection and Closure of the New Testament Canon", in ''The Canon Debate''. eds. L. M. McDonald & J. A. Sanders (Hendrickson, 2002) p. 320; F. F. Bruce, ''The Canon of Scripture'' (Intervarsity Press, 1988) p. 230; cf. Augustine, ''De Civitate Dei'' 22.8</ref>
=== Protestant ===
In the 16th century, the Protestant reformers sided with Jerome; yet although most Protestant Bibles now have only those books that appear in the Hebrew Bible, they have them in the order of the Greek Bible.{{Sfn | Barton | 1997 | pp = 80–81}}
Rome then officially adopted a canon, the [[Canon of Trent]], which is seen as following Augustine's Carthaginian Councils<ref>{{citation |chapter-url=http://www.ccel.org/s/schaff/history/3_ch09.htm |title=History of the Christian Church |chapter=Chapter IX. Theological Controversies, and Development of the Ecumenical Orthodoxy |author=[[Philip Schaff]] |publisher=CCEL}}</ref> or the [[Council of Rome]],<ref>{{cite book |last=Lindberg |title=A Brief History of Christianity |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2006 |page=15}}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church |edition=2nd |editor=F.L. Cross, E.A. Livingstone |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1983 |page=232}}</ref> and includes most, but not all, of the Septuagint ([[3 Ezra]] and 3 and 4 [[Maccabees]] are excluded);{{Sfn | Soggin | 1987 | p = 19}} the [[Anglican]]s after the [[English Civil War]] adopted a compromise position, restoring the [[39 Articles]] and keeping the extra books that were excluded by the [[Westminster Confession of Faith]], but only for private study and for [[Anglican Liturgy|reading in churches]], while [[Lutheran]]s kept them for private study, gathered in an appendix as [[Biblical Apocrypha]].{{Sfn | Barton | 1997 | pp = 80–81}}
=== Other versions ===
While the Hebrew, Greek and Latin versions of the Hebrew Bible are the best known Old Testaments, there were others. At much the same time as the Septuagint was being produced, translations were being made into Aramaic, the language of Jews living in Palestine and the Near East and likely the [[Aramaic of Jesus|language of Jesus]]: these are called the Aramaic [[Targum]]s, from a word meaning "translation", and were used to help Jewish congregations understand their scriptures.{{Sfn | Würthwein | 1995 | pp = 79–90, 100–4}}
For Aramaic Christians there was a [[Syriac language|Syriac]] translation of the Hebrew Bible called the [[Peshitta]], as well as versions in [[Coptic language|Coptic]] (the everyday language of Egypt in the first Christian centuries, descended from ancient Egyptian), [[Ethiopic]] (for use in the Ethiopian church, one of the oldest Christian churches), [[Armenian people|Armenian]] (Armenia was the first to adopt Christianity as its official religion), and [[Arabic]].{{Sfn | Würthwein | 1995 | pp = 79–90, 100–4}}
== Christian theology ==
{{Main|Christian views on the Old Covenant}}
Christianity is based on the belief that the [[historical Jesus]] is also the [[Christ]], as in the [[Confession of Peter]]. This belief is in turn based on Jewish understandings of the meaning of the Hebrew term [[messiah]], which, like the Greek "Christ", means "anointed". In the Hebrew Scriptures it describes a king anointed with oil on his accession to the throne: he becomes "The {{LORD}}'s anointed" or [[Yahweh]]'s Anointed. By the time of Jesus, some Jews expected that a flesh and blood descendant of David (the "[[Davidic line|Son of David]]") would come to establish a real Jewish kingdom in Jerusalem, instead of the [[Iudaea Province|Roman province]].{{Sfn | Farmer | 1991 | pp = 570–71}}
Others stressed the [[Son of Man]], a distinctly other-worldly figure who would appear as a [[Last judgment|judge at the end of time]]; and some harmonised the two by expecting a this-worldly messianic kingdom which would last for a set period and be followed by the other-worldly age or [[World to Come]]. Some thought the Messiah was already present, but unrecognised due to Israel's sins; some thought that the Messiah would be announced by a fore-runner, probably [[Elijah]] (as promised by the prophet Malachi, whose book now ends the Old Testament and precedes [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]]'s account of [[John the Baptist]]). None predicted a Messiah who suffers and dies for the sins of all the people.{{Sfn | Farmer | 1991 | pp = 570–71}} The story of Jesus' death therefore involved a profound shift in meaning from the tradition of the Old Testament.{{Sfn | Juel | 2000 | pp = 236–39}}
The name "Old Testament" reflects Christianity's understanding of itself as the [[Supersessionism|fulfillment]] of Jeremiah's prophecy of a [[New Covenant]] (which is similar to "testament" and often conflated) to replace the existing [[Covenant (biblical)|covenant]] between God and Israel (Jeremiah 31:31).{{Sfn | Jones | 2001 | p = 215}} The emphasis, however, has shifted from Judaism's understanding of the covenant as a racially or tribally-based contract between God and Jews to one between God and any person of faith who is "in Christ".{{Sfn | Herion | 2000 | pp = 291–92}}
== See also ==
* [[Abrogation of Old Covenant laws]]
* [[Biblical and Quranic narratives]]
* [[Book of Job in Byzantine illuminated manuscripts]]
* [[Books of the Bible]]
* [[Covenant (biblical)]]
* [[Expounding of the Law]]
* [[Timeline of Genesis patriarchs]]
* [[Law and Gospel]]
* [[List of ancient legal codes]]
* [[List of Hebrew Bible manuscripts]]
* [[Marcion of Sinope]]
* [[Non-canonical books referenced in the Bible]]
* [[Quotations from the Hebrew Bible in the New Testament]]
* [[Supersessionism]]
== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}
== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
== Bibliography ==
* {{Citation | last= Bandstra| first= Barry L| title= Reading the Old Testament: an introduction to the Hebrew Bible| publisher= Wadsworth| year = 2004 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=vRY9mTUZKJcC&pg=PA489&lpg=PA489&dq=Bandstra,+Barry+L+%282004%29.+Reading+the+Old+Testament:+an+introduction+to+the+Hebrew+Bible#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn= 978-0-495-39105-0}}
* {{Citation |last=Barton|first=John|title=How the Bible came to be|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=1997|url= https://books.google.com/?id=UfU4_9M4N2YC&printsec=frontcover&dq=How+the+Bible+came+to+be+Barton#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn= 978-0-664-25785-9}}
* {{Citation |last=Barton|first=John| author-mask = 3 | chapter=Introduction to the Old Testament|url = https://books.google.com/?id=3surkLVdw3UC&pg=PA6&dq=B.+Collecting+the+Hebrew+Scriptures#v=onepage&q=B.%20Collecting%20the%20Hebrew%20Scriptures&f=false |editor1-first =John | editor2-last = Barton | editor2-first = John | editor-last = Muddiman|title= Bible Commentary|publisher= Oxford University Press|year= 2001|isbn = 978-0-19-875500-5}}
* {{Citation |last=Blenkinsopp|first=Joseph|authorlink=Joseph Blenkinsopp|chapter=The Pentateuch|url= https://books.google.com/?id=PSHCRgS_SAUC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Cambridge+companion+to+biblical+interpretation#v=onepage&q&f=false | editor-first = John | editor-last = Barton| title= The Cambridge companion to biblical interpretation|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1998|isbn= 978-0-521-48593-7}}
* {{Citation |last=Boadt|first=Lawrence|authorlink=Lawrence Boadt|title=Reading the Old Testament: an introduction|publisher=Paulist Press|year=1984|url = https://books.google.com/?id=LGQNT6G_do8C&printsec=frontcover&dq=Reading+the+Old+Testament:+an+introduction#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn = 978-0-8091-2631-6}}
* {{Citation |last=Brettler|first=Marc Zvi|authorlink=Marc Zvi Brettler|title=How to read the Bible|publisher=Jewish Publication Society|year=2005|url= https://books.google.com/?id=39nQafdJ_ssC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Brettler+how+to+read+the+bible#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn= 978-0-8276-1001-9}}
* {{Citation |last=Bultman|first=Christoph|chapter=Deuteronomy|url= https://books.google.com/?id=3surkLVdw3UC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Oxford+Bible+commentary#v=onepage&q=Deuteronomy&f=false |editor1-first =John | editor1-last = Barton | editor2-first = John | editor2-last = Muddiman |title=Oxford Bible Commentary|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2001|isbn= 978-0-19-875500-5}}
* {{Citation |last=Coggins|first=Richard J|authorlink=Richard Coggins|chapter=1 and 2 Chronicles|url= https://books.google.com/?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&pg=PA153&lpg=PA153&dq=Chronicles+Richard+J+Coggins#v=onepage&q=Deuteronomy%20John%20W%20Rogerson&f=false | editor1-first = James DG | editor1-last = Dunn | editor2-first = John William | editor2-last = Rogerson|title= Commentary on the Bible|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2003|isbn= 978-0-8028-3711-0}}
* {{Citation |last=Crenshaw|first=James L|authorlink=James L. Crenshaw|title=Old Testament wisdom: an introduction|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=2010|url = https://books.google.com/?id=tKpWNrkO8dEC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Old+Testament+wisdom:+an+introduction++By+James+L.+Crenshaw#v=onepage&q&f=false | isbn = 978-0-664-23459-1}}
* {{Citation |last=Davies|first=GI |chapter=Introduction to the Pentateuch|url= https://books.google.com/?id=3surkLVdw3UC&pg=PA12&dq=Oxford+Bible+Commentary+Introduction+to+the+Pentateuch#v=onepage&q=Oxford%20Bible%20Commentary%20Introduction%20to%20the%20Pentateuch&f=false | editor-first =John | editor-last = Barton|title=Oxford Bible Commentary|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998|isbn= 978-0-19-875500-5}}
* {{Citation |last=Dines|first=Jennifer M|title=The Septuagint|work=Continuum|year=2004|url= https://books.google.com/?id=Qv8Riv3QIbQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Dines+Septuagint#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn= 978-0-567-08464-4}}
* {{Citation |last=Farmer|first= Ron|chapter= Messiah/Christ|url= https://books.google.com/?id=goq0VWw9rGIC&pg=PA570#v=onepage&q&f=false | editor1-first = Watson E | editor1-last = Mills | editor2-first = Roger Aubrey | editor2-last = Bullard|title=Mercer dictionary of the Bible|publisher= Mercer University Press|year=1991|isbn= 978-0-86554-373-7}}
* {{Citation |last=Gentry|first=Peter R|chapter=Old Greek and Later Revisors|url= https://books.google.com/?id=NoCJKyxEujEC&pg=PA301&dq=Old+Greek+and+Later+Revisors:+Can+we+always+distinguish+them#v=onepage&q=Old%20Greek%20and%20Later%20Revisors%3A%20Can%20we%20always%20distinguish%20them%3F&f=false |editor1-first =Raija | editor1-last = Sollamo | editor2-first = Anssi | editor2-last = Voitila | editor3-first = Jutta | editor3-last = Jokiranta|title=Scripture in transition|publisher=Brill|year=2008|isbn= 978-90-04-16582-3}}
* {{Citation |last=Grabbe|first=Lester L|authorlink=Lester L. Grabbe|chapter=Ezra|url= https://books.google.com/?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&pg=PA153&lpg=PA153&dq=Deuteronomy+John+W+Rogerson#v=onepage&q=Deuteronomy%20John%20W%20Rogerson&f=false |editor1-first = James DG | editor1-last = Dunn | editor2-first = John William | editor2-last = Rogerson|title= Commentary on the Bible|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2003|isbn= 978-0-8028-3711-0}}
* {{Citation |last=Hasel|first=Gerhard F|authorlink=Gerhard Hasel|title=Old Testament theology: basic issues in the current debate|publisher= Eerdmans|year=1991| url = https://books.google.com/?id=yJJ6bE0kt1YC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Old+Testament+theology#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn= 978-0-8028-0537-9}}
* {{Citation |last=Herion|first= Gary A|chapter= Covenant|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=Old%20Testament&f=false |editor-first =David Noel | editor-last = Freedman|title= Dictionary of the Bible|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2000|isbn = 978-90-5356-503-2}}
* {{Citation |last1=Jobes|first1=Karen H|last2=Silva|first2=Moises|authorlink2=Moisés Silva|title=Invitation to the Septuagint|publisher=Baker Academic|year= 2005}}
* {{Citation |last=Jones|first= Barry A|chapter= Canon of the Old Testament|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&lpg=PP1&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q=Old%20Testament&f=false |editor-first =David Noel | editor-last = Freedman|title= Dictionary of the Bible|publisher= William B Eerdmans | year = 2000|isbn = 978-90-5356-503-2}}
* {{Citation |last=Juel|first=Donald|author-link=Donald Juel|chapter=Christ|url= https://books.google.com/?id=qRtUqxkB7wkC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Eerdmans+Dictionary+of+the+Bible#v=onepage&q&f=false | editor-first =David Noel | editor-last = Freedman|title= Dictionary of the Bible | publisher = William B Eerdmans |year=2000|isbn= 978-90-5356-503-2}}
* {{cite book |title= The Dead Sea Scrolls: A Very Short Introduction|edition= |last= Lim|first= Timothy H.|year= 2005|publisher= Oxford University Press |location= Oxford|isbn= }}
* {{Citation |last=McLay|first=Tim|title=The use of the Septuagint in New Testament research|publisher=Eerdmans|year= 2003|url = https://books.google.com/?id=41rx-TDIF9gC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Use+of+the+Septuagint+in+New+Testament+Research#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn = 978-0-8028-6091-0}}
* {{Citation |last=Miller|first=John W|title=How the Bible came to be|publisher=Paulist Press|year= 2004|url = https://books.google.com/?id=a4VnOt-jstoC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn= 978-0-8091-4183-8}}
* {{Citation |last=Miller|first=John W|title=Meet the prophets: a beginner's guide to the books of the biblical prophets|publisher=Paulist Press | year = 1987|url= https://books.google.com/?id=mHXM3wjVP-gC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Meet+the+prophets:+a+beginner%27s+guide+to+the+books+of+the+biblical+prophets#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn= 978-0-8091-2899-0}}
* {{Citation |last=Miller|first=Stephen R.|title=Daniel|publisher=B&H Publishing Group|year= 1994|url= https://books.google.com/?id=r3D6niEj9_sC&printsec=frontcover&dq=daniel,+steven+r.+miller#v=onepage&q&f=false |isbn= 0-8054-0118-0}}
* {{Citation |last=Rogerson|first=John W|chapter=Deuteronomy|url= https://books.google.com/?id=2Vo-11umIZQC&pg=PA153&lpg=PA153&dq=Deuteronomy+John+W+Rogerson#v=onepage&q=Deuteronomy%20John%20W%20Rogerson&f=false |editor1-first = James DG | editor1-last = Dunn | editor2-first = John William | editor2-last = Rogerson|title= Commentary on the Bible|publisher=Eerdmans|year=2003|isbn= 978-0-8028-3711-0}}
* {{Citation |last= Sailhamer|first= John H.|title= The Pentateuch As Narrative|url = https://books.google.com/?id=KNb6GwAACAAJ&dq=john+sailhamer+the+pentateuch |publisher=Zondervan|year=1992|isbn= 0-310-57421-8}}
* {{Citation |last= Schniedewind|first= William M|authorlink=William Schniedewind|title= How the Bible Became a Book|url = https://books.google.com/?id=tCTVc8_2vVQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=How+the+Bible+Became+a+Book#v=onepage&q&f=false |publisher=Cambridge|year=2004|isbn= 978-0-521-53622-6}}
* {{Citation |last=Soggin|first=J. Alberto|authorlink=Alberto Soggin|title=Introduction to the Old Testament|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|year=1987|url = https://books.google.com/?id=mqSNsKXnHQgC&pg=PA40&dq=Soggin+Hebrew+bible#v=onepage&q=Soggin%20Hebrew%20bible&f=false |isbn= 978-0-664-22156-0}}
* {{Citation |last=Stuart|first=Douglas|title=Hosea-Jonah|publisher=Thomas Nelson|year= 1987|url = http://smile.amazon.com/Word-Biblical-Commentary-Vol-Hosea-Jonah/dp/0849902304/ref=sr_1_2?s=books&ie=UTF8&qid=1460638022&sr=1-2&keywords=hosea-jonah |isbn= 0-8499-0230-4}}
* {{Citation |last=Würthwein|first=Ernst|title=The text of the Old Testament: an introduction to the Biblia Hebraica|publisher= William B Eerdmans | year = 1995 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=FSNKSBObCYwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=W%C3%BCrthwein+The+Text+of+the+Old+Testament#v=onepage&q&f=false | isbn = 978-0-8028-0788-5}}
== Further reading ==
* [[Bernhard Anderson|Anderson, Bernhard]]. ''Understanding the Old Testament''. {{ISBN|0-13-948399-3}}
* [[Greg Bahnsen|Bahnsen, Greg]], et al., ''Five Views on Law and Gospel'' (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993).
* {{Citation | last1 = Berkowitz | first1 = Ariel | last2 = Berkowitz | first2 = D'vorah | title = Torah Rediscovered | edition = 4th | publisher = Shoreshim | year = 2004 | isbn = 0-9752914-0-8}}.
* {{Citation | last = Dever | first = William G. | authorlink = William G. Dever | title = Who Were the Early Israelites? | publisher = William B Eerdmans | place = Grand Rapids, Michigan | year = 2003 | isbn = 0-8028-0975-8}}.
* {{Citation | first = Gerhard | last = von Rad | author-link = Gerhard von Rad | title = Theologie des Alten Testaments | language = German |trans-title=Theology of the Old Testament | volume = Band 1–2 | place = Munich | publisher = Auflage | year = 1982–1984}}.
* {{Citation | last1 = Hill | first1 = Andrew | first2 = John | last2 = Walton | title = A Survey of the Old Testament | edition = 2nd | place = Grand Rapids | publisher = Zondervan | year = 2000 | isbn = 0-310-22903-0}}.
* {{Citation | last = Kuntz | first = John Kenneth | title = The People of Ancient Israel: an introduction to Old Testament Literature, History, and Thought | publisher = Harper & Row | year = 1974 | isbn = 0-06-043822-3}}.
* {{Citation | last = Lancaster | first = D Thomas | title = Restoration: Returning the Torah of God to the Disciples of Jesus | place = Littleton \ |publisher=First Fruits of Zion | year = 2005}}.
* {{Citation | last = Papadaki-Oekland | first = Stella | title = Byzantine Illuminated Manuscripts of the Book of Job | isbn = 978-2-503-53232-5}}.
* {{Citation | last = Rouvière | first = Jean-Marc | title = Brèves méditations sur la Création du monde | language = French |trans-title=Brief meditations on the creation of the World | publisher = L'Harmattan | place = Paris | year = 2006}}.
* {{Citation | last = Salibi | first = Kamal | authorlink = Kamal Salibi | title = The Bible Came from Arabia | place = London | publisher = Jonathan Cape | year = 1985 | isbn = 0-224-02830-8}}.
* {{Citation | last = Schmid | first = Konrad | title = The Old Testament: A Literary History | publisher = Fortress | place = Minneapolis | year = 2012 | isbn = 978-0-8006-9775-4}}.
* {{Citation | last1 = Silberman | first1 = Neil A | authorlink1 = Neil Asher Silberman | title = The Bible Unearthed | publisher = Simon & Schuster | place = New York | year = 2003 | isbn = 0-684-86912-8 | format = hardback|display-authors=etal}}, {{ISBN|0-684-86913-6}} (paperback).
* {{Citation | last = Sprinkle | first = Joseph ‘Joe’ M | title = Biblical Law and Its Relevance: A Christian Understanding and Ethical Application for Today of the Mosaic Regulations | place = Lanham, Maryland | publisher = University Press of America | year = 2006 | isbn = 0-7618-3371-4 | format = clothbound}} and {{ISBN|0-7618-3372-2}} (paperback).
== External links ==
* {{Citation | url = http://www.biblegateway.com/ | title = Bible gateway}}. Full texts of the Old (and New) Testaments including the full Roman and Orthodox Catholic canons
* {{Citation | url = http://earlyjewishwritings.com/ | title = Early Jewish Writings}} - Tanakh
* {{Citation | url = http://www.lafeuilledolivier.com/Ecritures/OT.htm | title = Écritures | contribution = Old Testament | publisher = La feuille d'Olivier | deadurl = yes | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20101207051208/http://lafeuilledolivier.com/Ecritures/OT.htm | archivedate = 2010-12-07 | df = }} Protestant Old Testament on a single page
* {{Citation | url = http://www.tyndale.ca/seminary/mtsmodular/reading-rooms/oldt | contribution = Old Testament | title = Reading Room | publisher = Tyndale Seminary | place = [[Canada|CA]]}}. Extensive online OT resources (incl. commentaries)
* {{Citation | url = https://oyc.yale.edu/NODE/241 | title = Introduction to the Old Testament (Hebrew Bible) | publisher = Yale University }}
* {{cite web | title=Old Testament | publisher= The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. | website=[[Encyclopedia.com]] | url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/bible/old-testament/old-testament }}
* {{Citation | url = http://www.bible.x10host.com/ | title = Bible | publisher = X10 host}}: Old Testament stories and commentary
* {{Citation | url = http://www.tanakhml.org/ | title = Tanakh ML | type = parallel Bible}} – [[Biblia Hebraica Stuttgartensia]] and the [[King James Version]]
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